test 5 Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
Health Psychology
A
Investigation of the psychological factors related to wellness and illness. Includes prevention, diagnosis and treatment of medical problems such as stress and heart disease
2
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Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI
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The study of the relationship between psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain. Lead to discoveries such as the relationship between emotional state and immune system success.
3
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Stress
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A person’s response to events that are threatening or challenging. Both positive and negative events can cause this.
4
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Cataclysmic stressors
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Strong stressors that occur suddenly and typically effect many people simultaneously. Rate of stress correlates to closure of event (people get over natural disasters faster than terrorism)
5
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Personal stressors?
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Major life events such as the death of a parent or spouse, loss of a job, a major personal failure, and even positive events such as getting married. Typically produces an immediate major reaction that tapers off soon and over time.
6
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Background stressors
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Daily hassles. Everyday annoyances, such as being stuck in traffic, that cause minor irritations and may have long term ill-effects if they are continued or compounded by other stressful events (standing in line)
7
Q
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD
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A phenomenon in which victims of major catastrophes or strong personal stressors feel long lasting effects that may include re-experiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams.
8
Q
Learned helplessness
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A state in which people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled: A view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to remedy the aversive circumstances, even if they actually can exert some influence. This leads to experience of more physical symptoms and depression
9
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Psychophysiological disorders
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Medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. These include high blood pressure, backaches, skin rashes, indigestion, fatigue and constipation)
10
Q
Uplifts
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The opposite of personal stressors. Minor positive events that make us feel good, even if only temporary. (Relating to someone, liking surroundings.
11
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General adaptation syndrome (GAS)?
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This suggests that the physiological response to stress follows the same pattern regardless of the cause of stress.
12
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GAS: Alarm and Mobilization
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First stage of GAS. Occur when people become aware of a stressor (failing an exam). The sympathetic nervous system becomes energized, helping a person cope with stressors.
13
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GAS: Resistance
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The second stage of GAS, if the stressor persists. The body is actively fighting the stressor. The person employs a variety of means to help cope with the stressor- sometimes successfully, but at the cost of physical or psychological wellbeing (Extra hours studying).
14
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GAS: Exhaustion
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The 3rd stage of GAS, if the stressor continues. The person’s ability to fight the stressor declines to the point where negative consequences of stress appear (inability to concentrate, heightened irritability, disorientation, or sometimes loss of touch with reality. Sometime allows escape of the stressor to regroup.
15
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Coping
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The efforts to control, reduce, or learn how to tolerate threats that lead to stress.
16
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Emotion-focused coping
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Used for unchangeable situations. Trying to manage emotions in the face of stress by seeking to change the way one feels about or perceives a problem (looking at the bright side). A good and effective method.
17
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Problem-focused coping
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Used for changeable situations. Attempting to modify the source of the stress. Leads to a change in behavior, or development of a plan of action. (forming a study group)
18
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Avoidant coping
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Using wishful thinking to reduce stress, or using escape routes like drugs, alcohol or overeating. Results in postponement or worsening of the situation.
19
Q
Moderate stress and value to the person
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Stress-free people have comparable sense of well-being as those with adverse stress. The highest sense of well-being was among groups with mid-level stress in life. They become resilient and use coping skills.
20
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Hardiness
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A personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness
21
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Commitment
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A component of hardiness. A tenancy to throw oneself into whatever activity they are doing with a sense of importance and meaningfulness in the activity.
22
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Challenge
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A component of hardiness. The belief that change, as opposed to stability, is the standard condition of life. Anticipation of change is an incentive rather than a threat to security.
23
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Control
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A component of hardiness. The perception that people can influence the events in their life.
24
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Social supporters and effects on others
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The knowledge that we are part of a mutual network of caring interest in others. Leads to experience in lower levels of stress and better coping abilities.
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Effects of attending religious service
Illustrates importance of social support. Provides health related benefits and leads to longevity.
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Type “A” traits
A cluster of behaviors involving hostility, competitiveness, time urgency and feeling driven. People like this develop coronary heart disease twice as often and suffer more fatal heart attacks. (research done on men only)
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Type “B” traits
Characterized by a patient, cooperative, noncompetitive, and nonaggressive manner. Less coronary heart disease and fatal heart attacks.
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Type “D” traits
Distressed behavior. Characterized by insecurity, anxiety, and an overall negative outlook. They put themselves at risk for repeated heart attacks.
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Factors that influence smoking
There is a hereditary and genetic link, but it is primarily environmental factors that contribute to picking up the habit. Seeing it as “cool”, rebellious, or calming leads to it. Greater media exposure increases the risk. Self-identity as a smoker and physiological dependence contribute to continuing the habit. Smokers smoke to regulate emotions and nicotine levels in the blood.
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Effects of Zyban and Chantix
Drugs that, instead of replacing nicotine, reduce the pleasure of smoking and mitigate withdrawal symptoms of smokers trying to quit.
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Smoking in the US vs. abroad
Declining rates in high school smoking, which is leveling off. Leads US manufacturers to target other countries. In Latin America, as many as 50% of teenagers smoke. Children in Hong Kong smoke as young as 7. India, Ghana, Jamaica, and Poland; 30% of children smoked their first cigarette by age 10
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Abnormal behavior
Behavior that causes people to experience distress and prevents them from functioning in their daily lives. A broad definition, to be seen as a continuum.
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Abnormalities as a deviation from the average
1 of 5 ways of looking at abnormality. Contrasting behaviors that are rare or infrequent compared to social or cultural norms. Insufficient definition; high IQ falls into this category
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Abnormality as a deviation from the ideal
1 of 5 ways of looking at abnormality. Considers abnormality in relation to a standard of which most people are striving. Society has few universally agreeable standards, and even these are subject to change
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Abnormality as a sense of personal discomfort
1 of 5 ways of looking at abnormality. A more useful approach that focuses on the psychological consequences of the behavior for the individual or others. However, people might feel well-being while observing/exhibiting bizarre behavior.
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Abnormality as the inability to function effectively
1 of 5 ways of looking at abnormality. When someone is unable to adjust to the demands of society and function effectively. A homeless person may be considered abnormal, even if they chose to live that way.
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Abnormality as a legal concept
1 of 5 ways of looking at abnormality. A purely legal concept, often changing between jurisdictions, and sometimes inadmissible.
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Insanity, as a term
The legal term for abnormal behavior.
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Medical perspective
Fundamental causes of abnormal behavior are found through physical examination, such as hormonal imbalances, chemical deficiency, or brain injury. Associated with terms like “illness”, “symptoms”, and “mental hospitals”. However, there are often no biological causes.
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Psychoanalytic perspective
The view that abnormal behavior stems from childhood conflicts over opposing wishes regarding sex aggression. Difficult to prove, but theoretically significant.
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Behavioral perspective
Views behaviors themselves, rather than symptoms, as the problem. Normal and abnormal behaviors are responses to stimuli, learned through past experience (conditioning). A highly objective and useful method, yet it ignores the rich inner world of thoughts, attitudes, and emotions.
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Cognitive perspective
Rather than considering only external behavior, this assumes that people’s thoughts and beliefs are central to abnormal behavior. It holds that people can find a more adaptive way of framing beliefs, even in the most negative circumstances.
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Humanistic perspective
Emphasizes people’s responsibility for their own behavior, even when it is abnormal. Views people as basically rational, oriented toward a social world, and motivated to seek self-actualization. Argues people can choose what behavior is normal for themselves, if it doesn’t interfere with others. Criticized as unscientific, unverifiable, and vague (almost philosophical).
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Sociocultural perspective
Holds that people’s behavior is a product of their environment. Poverty and prejudice may be the root of abnormal behavior, which daily stress can maintain. Supported by different prevalent disorders among ethnicities, and poor economic ties being linked to increased disorders. Offers very little specific guidance.
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM IV-TR )(DSM 5); what it offers, does and doesn’t do
Comprehensive and precise definitions of over 200 disorders in 17 categories, including 5 axes of information to be considered in assessment. It is primarily descriptive and avoids suggesting underlying causes of behavior. Allows for communication, classification and conceptual shorthand. Can be conned, leading to misdiagnosis. May rely too much on the medical perspective.
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Clinical disorders
Axis 1 of DSM. Disorders that produce distress and impair functioning
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Personality disorders and mental retardation
Axis 2 of DSM. Enduring, rigid behavior patterns.
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General medical conditions
Axis 3 of DSM. Physical disorders that may be related to psychological disorders.
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Psychosocial and environmental problems
Axis 4 of DSM. Problems in a person’s life such as stressors or life events that may affect diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of psychological disorders.
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Global assessment of functioning
Overall level of mental, social, occupational, and leisure functioning.
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Rosenham’s study and what happened
9 psychologist conned the DSM. Answered all questions and test honestly, but only once said they heard voices. They were all admitted, and even though they no longer claimed to hear voices, were diagnosed severely abnormal and kept and average of 19 days. None were discovered as imposters by professionals, though some patients figured it out.
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Anxiety disorders
Occurs when anxiety arises without external justification, and begins to affect people’s daily functioning
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Anxiety disorders: phobic
An intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation.
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Anxiety disorders: panic
Attacks that occur, lasting between a few seconds to several hours, and having no identifiable stimuli. With no notable cause, it may lead to psychological disorders such as agoraphobia. May be caused by an overactive autonomic nervous system.
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Anxiety disorders: generalized anxiety
Experience of long-term, persistent anxiety and uncontrollable worry. Sometimes there are identifiable causes, and sometimes they can’t be identified. May be accompanied by strong physiological symptoms such as muscle tension headaches, and insomnia.
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Anxiety disorders: obsessive compulsive
When someone is plagued by unwanted thoughts, or feel they must carry out behaviors, which they feel driven to perform. Carrying out the rituals may lead to immediate reduced anxiety, but it retruns in the long run. May be caused by increased levels of grey matter.
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Somatoform disorders
Psychological difficulties that take on a physical form, but for which there is no medical cause.
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Somatoform disorders: hypochondriasis disorder
When someone has a constant fear of illness and preoccupation with their heath. Symptoms are misrepresented as evidence of a serious illness.
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Somatoform disorders: conversion disorder
Involves an actual physical disturbance, such as the inability to see, hear, or move an arm or leg. The cause is purely psychological. They often have a strangely matter-of-fact way of reacting to these seemingly anxiety producing symptoms.
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Dissociative disorders
Characterized by the separation of different facets of a person’s personality that are normally integrated and work together. Helps people keep disturbing memories or perceptions from reaching conscious awareness, and thereby reducing anxiety.
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Dissociative disorders: dissociative identity disorder
Displays characteristics of two or more distinct personalities, or personality fragments. These may have different sets of likes, dislike, reactions, and even different vision (different glasses).
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Dissociative disorders: dissociative amnesia
A disorder in which significant, selective memory loss occurs. It is non-physiological; the memory exists, just can’t be recalled. The memory loss can be profound (Raymond Power Jr)
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Dissociative disorders: dissociative fugue
When someone takes a sudden, impulsive trip and sometimes assumes a new identity. After a period of time (days to years), they suddenly forget the trip and realize they are in a strange place. Their last memories are of the time before they left. Common thread is an escape of anxiety producing situation.
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Mood disorders
Disturbances in emotional experience that are strong enough to intrude on everyday living.
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Mood disorders: major depression
A severe form that interferes with concentration, decision making, and sociability. A more common form of mood disorder. It is more intense, lasts longer, and may not have a clear trigger, unlike the conventional, usual type.
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Mood disorders: bipolar disorder
Swings between highs and lows that may occur a few days apart, or alternate over a period of years. Lows usually last longer than highs
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Mood disorders: Mania
An extended state of intense, wild elation. Feeling of intense happiness, power, invulnerability and energy.
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Schizophrenia
A class of disorders in which severe distortion of reality occurs.
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Schizophrenia symptoms
Decline from a previous level of functioning, disturbances of thought and speech, delusions, hallucinations and perceptual disorders, emotional disturbances, and social withdrawal.
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Schizophrenia dopamine hypothesis
Suggests that it occurs when there is excess activity in the areas of the brain that use dopamine and a neurotransmitter.
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Schizophrenia positive symptoms
Symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and emotional extremes
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Schizophrenia negative symptoms
Symptoms such as absence or loss of normal functioning, such as social withdrawal or blunted emotions.
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Type 1 Schizophrenia
Positive symptoms are dominant.
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Type 2 Schizophrenia
Negative symptoms are dominant.
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Schizophrenia prognosis
no definition
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Schizophrenia delusions
Firmly held, unshakable beliefs with no basis in reality. Includes the belief they are being controlled and/or persecuted by others, and that their thoughts are being broadcast.
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Schizophrenia hallucinations & types
Perceiving things that do not actually exist. May see, hear, or smell things that do not actually exist. May not even have a sense of where their bodies end and the rest of the world begins.
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Process schizophrenia: symptoms and outlook
Symptoms develop slowly and subtly; may be a gradual withdrawal from the world, excessive daydreaming, and blunting of emotion until it reaches the point the disorder can’t be overlooked. Treatment outlook is relatively favorable.
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Reactive schizophrenia: symptoms and outlook
The onset of symptoms is sudden and conspicuous. More difficult form to treat.
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Biological causes of schizophrenia
The predominant approach. It is more common in some families than others, indicating genetic factors. However, when one identical twin has it, it’s only 50% likelihood the other will. The specific gene has not been clearly identified. There is a possibility it is a biochemical imbalance or structural abnormality.
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Environmental causes of schizophrenia
The psychoanalytic approach that it is a form of regression to earlier experiences and stages in life. Expressed emotion is an interaction style characterized by high levels of criticism, hostility, and emotional intrusiveness within the family that may cause the disorder. Cognitive theories include overattention, reaction and inability to screen out stimuli, and underattention, failing to focus sufficiently on important stimuli.
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The predisposition model schizophrenia
The predominant approach, suggesting that individuals may inherit a predisposition or an inborn sensitivity to schizophrenia.
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Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia
Characterized by inappropriate laughter and giggling, silliness, incoherent speech, infantile behavior, strange and sometimes obscene behavior.
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Catatonic schizophrenia
Characterized by major disturbances in movement; in some places, loss of all motion, with patient frozen into a single position, remaining that way for hours and sometimes even days; in other phases, hyperactivity and wild, sometimes violent, movement.
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Paranoid schizophrenia
Characterized by delusions and hallucinations of persecution or of greatness, loos of judgment, erratic and unpredictable behavior.
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Personality disorders
Characterized by a set of inflexible, maladaptive behavior patterns that keep a person from functioning appropriately in society. Those affected by them halve little sense of personal distress. They may lead seemingly normal lives.
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Personality disorders: Antisocial
Individuals with this disturbance show no regard for the moral and ethical rules of society or the rights of others. Can appear intelligent and likable, but turn out to be manipulative and deceptive, and lack guilt and anxiety about their wrongdoing.
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Personality disorders: borderline
People with this disorder have difficulty developing a secure sense of who they are. They rely on relationships with others to define their identity. Rejections re consequently devastating. They distrust others and have difficulty controlling their anger. May be caused by a background where their emotional reactions were criticized.
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Personality disorders: narcissistic
Characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance. They expect special treatment while disregarding other’s feelings. Primarily, inability to experience empathy.
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Childhood disorders
20% of children and 40% of adolescents experience significant emotional behavioral disorders.
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Childhood disorders: depression
15% to 20% of children and adolescents will experience a major episode of this. They display it differently than adults; instead of displaying major sadness or hopelessness, they produce the expression of exaggerated fears, clinginess, and avoidance of everyday activities. Older children may display sulking, school problems, and delinquency.
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Childhood disorders: ADHD
Characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity. It interferes with a child’s daily functioning. Experts feel it is produced by dysfunction in the nervous system. It is often misdiagnosed, since it is normal for healthy kids to occasionally display the same symptoms.
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Childhood disorders: autism
A severe developmental disability that impairs children’s ability to communicate and relate to others. Appears in the first 3 years and continues through life.
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Disorders found in all cultures
No definition
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Most commonly reported psychological disorders
Depression (14%), alcohol dependence (7%), drug dependence, panic disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorders.
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Top 2 psychological complaints reported by college students
Anxiety and depression
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When to seek psychological treatment
Long term feelings of distress interfere with your life, occasions of overwhelmingly high stress/inability to cope, prolonged depression/hopelessness, withdrawal from others, thoughts of suicide, chronic unexplainable physical problems, feelings of paranoia, and inability it interact well with others and develop realtionships.
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Psychotherapy
Approaches to therapy that focus of psychological disorders. Sees treatment as a way of psychological problems by modifying people’s behavior.
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Psychoanalysis: Freud
The kind of psychotherapy in which the goal is to release hidden unconscious thoughts and feelings in order to reduce their power in controlling behavior.
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Psychoanalysis: free association
Tell patients to say aloud whatever comes to mind, regardless of apparent irrelevance or senselessness. Then, analysts attempt to recognize and label connections between what a patient says and their unconscious.
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Psychoanalysis: dream interpretation
Examining dreams to find clues to unconscious conflicts and problems, attemoting to move beyond manifest content and uncover latent content.
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Psychoanalysis: repression
Inability or unwillingness to discuss or reveal particular memories, thoughts, or motivations. Psychologists try to pick up on cues, such as forgetting what was said or changing the subject, and unsure the patients stay on topic.
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Psychoanalysis: transference
The transfer of feelings to a psychoanalyst of love or anger that had been originally directed to a patient’s parents or other authority figures. Can be used to reenact and move past painful memories.
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Psychiatrist (vs. clinical
MDs with post graduate training in abnormal behavior. Because they can prescribe medication, they often treat most severe disorders.
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Clinical psychologist (vs. psychiatrist)
They have a PhD or Psy.D, who have also completed a postgraduate internship. They specialize in assessment and treatment of psychological difficulties, provide psychotherapy, and sometimes prescribe drugs.
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Behavioral therapy view of abnormality
Makes the assumption that both normal and abnormal behavior are learned, through reinforcement or punishment.
107
Aversive conditioning
Reduces the frequency of undesired behavior by paring an aversive, unpleasant stimulus with undesired behavior. Eg pairing alcohol with a drug that causes nausea and vomiting. Works well in inhibiting substance abuse, but long-term effectiveness is questions
108
Systematic desensitization
Gradual exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus is paired with relaxation to extinguish the response to anxiety. Construction of a hierarchy of fears, and imagining them in succession while using relaxation techniques.
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Exposure treatment
People are confronted suddenly or gradually, with a stimulus that they fear. Relaxation training is omitted. Responses eventually extinguish, and is about as effective as systematic desensitization. Treats phobias, anxiety disorders, and even impotence.
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Token systems
A type of operant conditioning. Rewards a person for desired behavior with an item such as a poker chip or play money, which can be exchanged for privileges. Mostly professionally employed in institutions for severe disorders, or in classrooms.
111
Contingency contracting
The therapist and client draw up a written agreement, stating behavioral goals of the client, with positive consequences for reaching them, and negative consequences for failing them. Proven effective in behavior modification.
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Observational learning
Modeling behavior to systematically teach new skills and ways of handling fears and anxieties. Helpfunl in training social skills and alleviating phobias.
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Dialectical behavior therapy
The focus on getting people to change their behavior and view of themselves by accepting who they are, regardless of whether it matches their ideal. Leaving the past alone and looking to the future.
114
Cognitive treatment approach
Attempts to change the way people think as well as behave. Assumes that anxiety, depression, and negative emotions develop from maladaptive thinking. Relatively short term, maximum of 20 sessions, highly focused and base on concrete problems.
115
Rational-emotive behavioral therapy
Attempts to restructure a person’s belief system into a more realistic, rational, and logical set of views. ABC; negative Activating conditions (A) lead to activation of irrational Beliefs (B) leading to emotional Consequences (C). Uses cognitive appraisal (self-evaluation). One of the most successful methods employed, but criticized for being the least scientific and requiring talkative patients.
116
Humanistic therapy
Credited to Abraham Maslow. This method draws on the philosophical perspective of self-responsibility in developing treatment techniques. Adopts the idea that we have control of our behavior, we can make choices about our outlook, and it’s up to us to solve difficulties.
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Humanistic: client-centered therapy
Utilizes non-directive counseling (clarifying, reflecting, and rephrasing client’s statements) in order to enable them to reach their potential of self-actualization.
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Client-centered: unconditional positive regard
The therapist provides whole-hearted acceptance and understanding, regardless of the feelings and attitudes the client expresses. Creates an atmosphere that enable clients to come to their own decisions to improve their live.
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Client-centered: empathetic reflection
The therapist communicates that they are caring, non-judgmental, and understanding of a client’s emotional experience.
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Interpersonal therapy (IPT)
Therapy in the context of social relationships. Stems from psychodynamic approaches, but concentrates more on here and now with the goal of improving existing relationships. (conflicts, sociality, roles, grief)
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Group therapy
Several unrelated people meet with a therapist to discuss some aspect of their psychological functioning. People discuss common problems. An economical approach, but lacks individual attention.
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Family therapy
Involves 2 or more family members, with one or more whose problems led to treatment. Rather than focusing on the members presenting the problem, the family is considered as a unit of contribution. The goal is to adopt new, more constructive roles and patterns of behavior.
123
Self-help therapy
A form of group therapy without a professional therapist. People with similar problems get together to discuss shared feelings and experiences. Examples are bereavement groups, and A.A.
124
Spontaneous remission
Recovery without formal treatment. If simply left alone, some people automatically recover- a simpler, cheaper process.
125
Effectiveness of therapy
For most people, psychotherapy is effective. On the other hand, it doesn’t work for everyone. No single form of therapy works best for every problem, and certain types are better for certain problems. Most therapies have basic similar elements.
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Diversity considerations in therapy
Behavior that may signal a psychological disorder in mid to upper class whites may be adaptive in minorities as a means of dealing with discrimination, and low socioeconomic burdens.
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Therapy: Asians and Latinos
When faced with a critical decision, their families tend to make it together- suggesting the family should play a role in psychological treatment.
128
Biomedical therapies
Rather than focusing on a patient’s psychological conflicts, past traumas, or environmental factors that may produce abnormal behavior, these focus on treatment directly to brain chemistry and other neurological factors.
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Biomedical: drug therapies
The control p psychological disorders through drugs, altering the operation of neurotransmitters and neurons.
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Biomedical: electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Used to treat severe depression. Electrical current of 70-150 volts is administered to the patient’s head, which causes loss of consciousness and seizures. Controversial, as it produces side effects such as disorientation, confusion, and memory loss, and because the mechanism that makes it work is not known.
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Biomedical: Psychosurgery
Brain surgery to reduce mental disorders. Used mostly in the 30’s- rarely today. An example is the prefrontal lobotomy. Often done with little precision. Can improve behavior, but the side effects were often dramatic, including total personality changes and death.
132
Ant-psychotic drugs and dopamine role
Used to reduce sever symptoms of disturbances, such as loss of touch with reality and agitation. Brought productivity to psych wards by calming bizarre behavior and allowing professionals to make progress. Most work by blocking dopamine receptors at the synapse (for schizophrenia). These do not produce a cure.
133
SSRI’s; what they do and what they’re for
These target serotonin and hold it to the synapse. Used to treat (reduce) depression.
134
Xanax and Valium; benefits and cautions
These reduce the level of anxiety a person experiences, and increase feelings of well-being. Produces side effects such as fatigue, dependence, and is fatal with alcohol. Therapeutic approaches treat anxiety as a symptom of an underlying disorder, so medication might put off confronting the real problem.
135
Chlorpromazine treatment and uses
One of the first antipsychotic drugs, becoming a popular treatment for schizophrenia. It blocks dopamine receptors at the synapse.
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Lithium treatment and uses
A form of mineral salts, this mood stabilizer is effective in bipolar disorder patients. It reduces manic episodes, but does not treat the depression phases. It is unique in that it is preventative, blocking future episodes before their onset.
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Community psychology
Aims to prevent or minimize the incidence of psychological disorders, as opposed to restoring them.
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Crisis centers
Modeled after suicide hotlines, these give callers an opportunity to discuss life crises with a sympathetic listener, often a volunteer.
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Neighborhood mental health centers
A network with the hope of providing low-cost mental health services, including short term therapy and community educational programs.
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Deinstitutionalization : intent and outcome
The transfer of former mental patients out of institutions and into the community, encouraged by the growth of the community psychology movement. The promise has largely not been met, due to low resources, and many are dumped back into the community without real support. 15%-35% of homeless people are believed to have a psychological disorder.
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Pranolol
Original use, traumatic memory use, and results: Originally a medication for high blood pressure. It also inhibits physiological responses to anxiety, such as a racing heartbeat and sweating. It also reduces the fear response, and is a promising treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder.
