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BIOL 2160 > Test One > Flashcards

Test One Flashcards

1
Q

What is a tissue?

A

similar cells performing a common function

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2
Q

Neurons/Nervous Tissue (examples & purpose)

A

Ex: motor neurons, cortical interneurons

Purpose: communication; sending and receiving information

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3
Q

Muscle Cells/Tissue (examples, purpose, voluntary?

A

Ex: cardiac myocytes, skeletal muscles, smooth muscle

Purpose: contract and generate movement

Atrophy: muscles haven’t contracted in a while and die

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4
Q

Epithelial Cells/Tissue (purpose, where?)

A

Purpose: exchange and boundaries; lines all body cavities e.g., mouth, nose, ears

Where: makes up most skin; all glands made of this

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5
Q

Epithelial Cells/Tissue (purpose, where?)

A

Purpose: exchange and boundaries; lines all body cavities e.g., mouth, nose, ears

Where: makes up most skin; all glands are made of this

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6
Q

Connective Tissue (characterized? & examples)

A

Characterized by: have few cells, lots of extracellular materials (water, salts & proteins), and are diverse

Ex: blood, fat, ligaments, tendons, cartilage & bone

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7
Q

Endocrine Gland

A

secretes molecules (hormones) into the bloodstream a.k.a. capillaries

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8
Q

Exocrine Glands

A

uses a DUCT to secrete molecules into a body cavity or exterior body (sweat, saliva)

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9
Q

Homeostasis (what & how)

A

The body’s ability to maintain a stable (not constant internal environment despite changes in the external environment.

Accomplished through negative feedback and antagonistic effectors

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10
Q

Negative Feedback (what & example)

A

What: returning conditions to a “set point” and input and output are opposites!

Ex: Sweat when hot. Sweat evaporates and you cool.

Why do you shiver when with a fever?
- Involved in changing the body temp set point (hypothalamus)
- shiver to make fever happen and beat the infection
- you feel cold bc set point had changed to 103
- once infection is defeated, hypothalamus returns set point
- sweat to cool down

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11
Q

Positive Feedback (what & examples)

A

What: moves conditions AWAY from “set point”/normal conditions. input and output are the same.

Ex:
- Contractions cause oxytocin to be released, causing more contractions. Baby’s head against the cervix activates stretch receptors that signal the hypothalamus to release more oxytocin and cause stronger contractions.
- Scratch a bug bite, which releases histamine, causing it to itch more. Input itching, output itching.

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12
Q

Ionic Bond

A

between - and + charge

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13
Q

Covalent Bond

A

two atoms SHARE electrons

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14
Q

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

A

electrons shared equally, neither will have a charge

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15
Q

Polar Covalent Bond (strong)

A

electrons go to atom with more protons, shared unequally

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16
Q

Hydrogen Bond

A

the partial positive charge in a polar covalent bond H2O is attracted to the partial negative charge in the O of H2O

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17
Q

Why don’t water and oil mix?

A

Oil is made of a lot of nonpolar bonds with no charge. To dissolve in water, it must form hydrogen bonds, but this cannot happen without a charge.

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18
Q

Electronegativity

A

an atom’s ability to attract and hold electrons; a measure of how + a nucleus is

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19
Q

HCNO*

A

next to = nonpolar
separated = polar

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20
Q

Monosaccharides (carb)

A

CHO in a 1:2:1 ratio, ring structure
major purpose: short-term energy

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21
Q

Disaccharides (carb)

A

2 sugars

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22
Q

Polysaccharides (carb)

A

hundreds, thousands of monosaccharides

-GLYCOGEN! the energy storage molecule, used for quick energy, metabolized when sugar levels drop
-body does not store glucose well, so when levels are high, glycogen is assembles and stored in muscles and liver

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23
Q

Carb-loading

A

increasing the amount of glycogen stored in the body prior to a competition

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24
Q

Water Weight/Burning Energy

A

Body burns through energy blood sugar –> glycogen (w/polar water) –> fat (nonpolar, no water)

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25
Q

Lipids

A

made of nonpolar hydrocarbon chains and rings, hydrophobic

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26
Q

Saturated Fat

A

solid @ body temp, no C=C bonds, saturated with hydrogens

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27
Q

Unsaturated Fat

A

liquid @ body temp, at least one C=C bond, not as many hydrogens

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28
Q

Phospholipids (lipid)

A
  • two fatty acids (nonpolar )& phosphate head (polar) attached to a glycerol backbone
  • component of cell membrane for a semi-permeable membrane
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29
Q

Steroid (lipid)

A
  • 4 rings fused
  • made from cholesterol, most are sex hormones
  • mostly nonpolar
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30
Q

Proteins

A

made of multiple aa’s whose sequence is determined by transcription and translation

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31
Q

Amino Acids

A

amino group, carboxyl group, and functional R group

32
Q

Primary Structure P

A

order of aa

33
Q

Secondary Structure P

A

twists and folds

34
Q

Tertiary Structure P

A

3D shape (fx), destroyed when denatured

35
Q

Quaternary Structure P

A

more than one chain of aa; braided necklaces

36
Q

Nucleotides

A

made of 5-carbon sugar, phosphates, and a nitrogen base

37
Q

pYrimidine Nitrogen Base

A

1 carbon ring; cYtosine, thYmine (uracil in RNA)

38
Q

Purine Nitrogen Base

A

2 carbon rings; Adenine, Guanine

39
Q

DNA

A

instruction for how to build proteins

40
Q

Chromosome

A

mix of DNA and proteins

41
Q

Genes

A

stretches of information in DNA that code for proteins

42
Q

Transcription

A

DNA –> mRNA, occurs in nucleus

43
Q

Translation

A

mRNA –> protein, occurs in cytoplasm

44
Q

Study Transcription outside of this

A

page 6

45
Q

mRNA

A

carries genetic code out of the nucleus

46
Q

Codons

A

code for one specific amino acid to be added during translation

47
Q

AUG

A

start codon; codes for aa methionine

48
Q

Stop Codons

A

UGA, UAG, UAA; stop codons, do not code code for aa

49
Q

rRNA

A

forms RNA component, allows for protein assembly

50
Q

tRNA

A

allows for protein assembly
1. reads mRNA and brings in the correct aa to build proteins during translation
2. hold anti-codons that recognize and bind to a specific codon in mRNA

51
Q

study the process of translation

A

page 6

52
Q

How can a gene code for more than 1 protein?

A

mRNA changed after transcription
Proteins made of many polypeptide chains
Protein modification
- Adding lipids to carbohydrate
- Adding a phosphate group
- Cutting into small units

53
Q

Anabolic Reactions

A

Production of larger molecules from smaller reactants. Requires energy.

Think A is first, so it uses MORE energy and produces LARGER molecules

Steroid = anabolic that BUILDS muscle

54
Q

Catabolic Reactions

A

Breakdown of larger molecules into smaller molecules.
Releases energy

Cats break down their food into smaller pieces to release energy

55
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

56
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

Usable energy is released as heat with every transformation of energy.
Heat energy is the “cost” of every reaction

57
Q

Endergonic Reactions

A

Require an input of energy. Products contain more free energy than reactants
“Energetically Uphill”

58
Q

Exergonic Reactions

A

Release energy. Reactants have more free energy than products
“Energetically Downhill”

59
Q

Exergonic Reactions

A

Release energy. Reactants have more free energy than products
“Energetically Downhill”

60
Q

How do ender and exergonic reactions work together?

A

For an endergonic rxn, there must be an exergonic rxn nearby that releases the correct amount of energy

61
Q

Activation Energy

A

Energy required for reactants to engage in rxn; all rxns need this
Can take the form of heat; molecules colliding

62
Q

Catalysts lower AE by

A

Increase rate of rxn
Are not changed by rxn (can be reused)
No effect on free energy of R or P
reactants = substrates

63
Q

Ligand

A

Anything that binds to a receptor (protein) based on shape
Affinity for bonding to a receptor protein is based on charge

64
Q

Substrate

A

reactant that binds to an enzyme

65
Q

Enzyme Activity

A

A measurement for the rate at which substrates are converted to product

Regulated by: concentration of enzyme and substrate, Affinity, temp, pH

66
Q

Covalent Regulation

A

Certain enzymes in body whose sole function is to activate or inactivate other enzymes

67
Q

Phosphorylation and De-phosphorylation

A

Kinase adds a phosphate group and activates enzymes

Phosphatase removes phosphate groups and turns it off

68
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A

Too much of anything can be toxic

If “C” accumulates in the cell, it can inhibit enzyme 2 and stop its own production

69
Q

End Product Inhibition

A

Some metabolic pathways have more than one end product.
If one builds up, the enzyme can be inhibited to allow other to produce more

70
Q

study ATP:

A

the medium of energy exhange and cell resp

71
Q

How is glycolysis different from every other step in cellular respiration?*

A

Occurs in cytoplasm
Does not require O2

72
Q

What is the only step in cellular respiration that does not produce ATP?*

A

The Linking Step

73
Q

How is ATP generated?

A

H+ ions create a gradient and diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix.
Flow through ATP synthase. Movement activates the enzyme and makes ATP.
Food gets broken down into electrons that get carried by NADH and FADH2.
If we stop eating, no more electrons. Proton gradient reaches equilibrium; ATP no longer made.
Our bodies also burn fats, proteins, and nucleic acids for energy.

74
Q

What is the purpose of O2? *

A

To receive electrons at the end of the ETC

75
Q

How much ATP gets made from glucose?*

A

36

BIOL 2160 (1 decks)

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