Test2 Flashcards

Question

Behaviorism

Answer 1

Focuses on simple explanations for outward behavior Unconcerned with inner workings of mind Explores how people learn to behave Helps us understand how personality is shaped by environment Believes that individual differences in personality due to social learning Learning how to behave from watching others’ behavior Rise of Behaviorism: Infant mind viewed as tabula rasa(白板子), or blank slate

Answer 2

Learned associations develop through conditioning process in which environmental stimuli and behavioral responses become connected 1. Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning （巴甫洛夫学说） learning that events tend to occur together, e.g., thunder and lightning 2. Operant (instrumental) conditioning learning that a behavior leads to a particular outcome, e.g., put coins in vending machine, retrieve candy; put coins in a slot machine, (maybe) win jackpot

Answer 3

Pavlov noticed the dogs salivating as soon as they saw the bowls that usually contained food or when a lab technician walked into the room . This suggested a learned response Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that elicits response, such as the reflex without a prior of learning Unconditioned response (UR): a response that without learning, such as reflex Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus unrelated to UR Conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place Conditioned response (CR): a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned So we can say that Classical conditioning is when a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response

Answer 4

the learning phase in which the CR is established; gradual formation of an association between NS and US

Answer 5

gradual decrease and elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US Extinction is not the same thing as unlearning. It occurs when we stop delivering reinforcers to a previously reinforced behavior. Spontaneous recovery :A sudden reappearance of an extinguished CR after a delay

Answer 6

Elicitation of a CR to stimuli that are highly similar, but not identical, to the CS

Answer 7

The opposite of stimulus generalization; occurs when we exhibit a CR to certain CS’s, but not others

Answer 8

Classical conditioning offers a way to get rid of phobias Watson & Mary Cover Jones (1924) successfully treated 3-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with cookies

Answer 9

A learning theory that uses rewards and punishments to reinforce or inhibit behavior, primarily proposed by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning, which focuses on physiological responses (for example, a bell causing a dog to salivate), while operant conditioning focuses on behavior and its consequences.

Answer 10

used to study learning process in which the consequences of a voluntary action determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in future Rat explores the environment & presses the bar randomly. Get food.> Learns to press bar to get food Food: reinforcer for pressing bar Begins to press bar more often

Answer 11

Reinforcement (Increasing behavior) : Likelihood of behavior occurring again (goes higher) Positive: Give something pleasant after a desirable behavior occurs. Negative: Take something unpleasant away Punishment (Decreasing behavior): Likelihood of behavior occurring again (goes lower) Positive: Add something unpleasant following an undesirable behavior Negative: Take something pleasant away, e.g. time out.

Answer 12

Good things Bad (aversive) Thing Administering Positive reinforcement Positive punishment (spanking) (a reward: money, candy) Taking away Negative punishment Negative reinforcement (taking a toy away; time-out) (turning off a shock)

Answer 13

Reinforcement increases the likelihood the behavior will occur in the future Positive vs. Negative reinforcement Punishment decreases the likelihood the behavior will occur in the future Positive vs. Negative punishment Positive (+) = addition of something Negative (–) = removal of something

Answer 14

Giving out rewards for good behavior at certain intervals Continuous reinforcement schedule Always given a reward for good behavior Partial reinforcement schedule Only sometimes given a reward for good behavior

Answer 15

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs Pro: faster learning Con: faster extinction

Answer 16

Occasionally reinforcing a behavior Pro: slower extinction Con: slower learning

Answer 17

Fixed-ratio reinforcement Given a reward after a certain number of behaviors Variable-ratio reinforcement Given a reward after a random number of behaviors Fixed-interval reinforcement Given a reward after a certain amount of time has passed Variable-interval reinforcement Given a reward after a random amount of time has passed

Answer 18

Continuous reinforcement schedule (reward every time) is what you use to learn a new behavior. Eventually you move to a partial reinforcement schedule (fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, or variable interval). Variable-ratio schedules usually lead to the greatest increase in desired behavior. Better at maintaining behavior for an extended period (e.g., gambling)

Answer 19

To learn to push the cart, the dog was likely rewarded for behaviors closer and closer to the desired behavior, known as shaping. Next time, let's shape the dog to buy dog food instead of pineapples and eggs, though

Answer 20

Modeling and imitation *The Bobo Doll Experiment * learning aggression through modeling

Answer 21

Cognitive maps are a concept proposed by psychologist Edward Tolman to describe an individual’s internal representation of the external environment in the brain. Cognitive maps help people navigate, remember locations, and make decisions when faced with new situations or routes. Spatial Representation: Cognitive maps describe the relationships between different locations in space, including distance and direction, allowing individuals to navigate effectively within an environment. Flexibility: Cognitive maps support not only the memorization of known routes but also adjustments when facing new ones. For instance, if a familiar route is blocked, people can use their cognitive map to find alternative paths. Accumulation of Experience: Cognitive maps are formed gradually through experience, so as an individual's experiences grow, their representation of the environment becomes more accurate and detailed. Abstract Nature: Cognitive maps are mental representations, often presented in an abstract way rather than as precise physical maps. Thus, individuals may remember key places or landmarks rather than every detail.

Answer 22

Overemphasis on Observational Learning: SLT places significant emphasis on observational learning, where individuals model others’ behaviors. Critics argue that it downplays other factors like personal motives, innate traits, and biological influences that also contribute to behavior. Insufficient Attention to Developmental Stages: SLT does not account for age-specific developmental stages. Unlike Piaget's or Erikson's theories, it doesn’t explore how observational learning changes with age or cognitive maturity. Limited Explanation of Internal Processes: While SLT introduces cognitive factors, like attention, retention, and motivation, it primarily focuses on observable behaviors. Critics argue that it overlooks complex internal psychological processes (such as feelings, thoughts, and unconscious motivations) that may affect learning and behavior. Underestimation of Biological Influences: SLT often overlooks biological and genetic factors that impact behavior. For instance, personality traits, temperament, and other hereditary aspects play a significant role in behavior, which SLT does not fully address. Challenges in Explaining Complex Behaviors: SLT effectively explains simple behaviors but has limitations in explaining complex behaviors that may not have a direct observational model. For example, it might be less helpful in explaining highly individualistic or original actions that are not based on observed behaviors. Environmental Determinism: Critics argue that SLT leans towards environmental determinism, implying that individuals are mainly shaped by their surroundings. This downplays the role of personal agency, autonomy, and free will in shaping behavior. Difficulty in Empirical Measurement: Some components of SLT, like internal cognitive processes (e.g., motivation or attention), are hard to measure empirically. This makes it challenging to test and verify certain aspects of the theory in controlled settings.

Answer 23

Clinical Psychology (CBT) Child Psychology Behavior Modification Programs Health Psychology Animal Training

Answer 24

1. Embrace Difficulties : The more effort requires to retrieve the more that learning take place 2. Avoid illusions of knowing: Familliarity is not mastery. We are drawn to immediate short term gain, not slower, effortful, long term retention. 3. To learn, retrieve: Periodic practice and testing strengthens retrieve routes. Test your self rather than rereading notes 4. Space it out , mix it up: When testing youself, variety and a little time to forget, raise the challenge of retreaval and result in greater retention 5. Beyond learning style: We have different intelligence and by drawing wide variety, we improve retention.

Answer 25

1. Increase your ability: Embrace a growth mind set. Practice like an expert and construct memory cues 2. Elaborate: Find different meaning of new materials by explaining it in your own words and by making connections 3. Generate: Attempt to answer a question or solve a problem before seeing the solution. Wade into the unknown and puzzle through it 4. Reflect: Combine elaboration and retrieval b y recalling learning, connecting learning and reflect on the success of learning. 5. Calibrate: Use objective measures, such as test and expert feedback, to clear away illusions and adjust the accuracy of the judgement of your learning.

Answer 26

Chunking: the configuration of smaller units of information into large coordinated units，组合记忆 Rehearsal: 彩排 Imagery: 想象 Memonics：复杂的东西简化成不同部位 Elaboration：解释

Answer 27

Memory is reconstructive, meaning it pieces together fragments of information and can be influenced by emotions, biases and external suggestions. Proactive Old Interferes with New Retroactive New Interferes with Old

Answer 28

It is a false but subjectively compelling memory Memories are often incomplete, biased, and distorted. Your memory is not like a video camera, but is a “reconstruction” Bartlett (1932) had English participants read the Canadian Indian folktale "War of the Ghosts” and recall the story numerous times at varying intervals. At longer intervals, their stories became increasingly distorted; they omitted details and made the story

Answer 29

Young children are especially vulnerable to suggestions to recall events that did not occur May cling to false memory, even when assured it did not occur Repeated questioning may elicit misinformation Especially affected by schemas—organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory (script memory)

Answer 30

Weak correlation between witnesses’ confidence in their testimony and its accuracy Less accurate when observing others of different race Less accurate when the witness has talked to other witnesses Less accurate when the observed situation is stressful (e.g., threatening, weapon involved) Many individuals have been wrongly convicted and exonerated through DNA testing

Answer 31

Stage 1 :Sensory Encoding Sensory memory Short term memory (working memory) Long term memory Stage 2: Temporary Storage & Processing Stage 3: Long-Term Storage & Retrieval Tip of the tongue Phenomenon: The experience of knowing that you know something but lack sufficient retrieval cues to access it Memory in the Brain: The hippocampus is a brain structure within the limbic system. It plays an important role in memory consolidation. Memories are not stored directly in the hippocampus, but are distributed

Answer 32

Temporary storage and processing system that retains the information we are currently thinking about for a limited amount of time. Subject to decay and interference. Capacity limit: usually people can remember 7 +-2 objects in short term memory. Organizing information to be remembered into meaningful groupings can extend the capacity of short-term memory beyond 7 ± 2.

Answer 33

Flashbulb memories Memories of emotional, traumatic events (e.g., assassinations of JFK, MLK, Hurricane Katrina) were thought to be extraordinarily detailed and accurate. Research has shown that traumatic memories (e.g., the Challenger explosion and 9/11) become distorted over time, just like any other memories.

Answer 34

Remembering more about things start in the beginning

Answer 35

Remembering more about things at the end

Answer 36

Repeat information to be remembered in its original form to retain in the short term memory.

Answer 37

Think about the meaning of the terms to be remembered,explain it in your own words, link it with your prior knowledge

Answer 38

Loss of memories of past events

Answer 39

Inability to encode new memories of events

Answer 40

Accessible to conscious awareness, can be stated “declaratively” Semantic Memory: knowledge of facts Episodic: memory of events in our live

Answer 41

Memory we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously: Procedural Memory: ‘Know how’ memory Priming: Facilitated recognition of a stimulus after seeing it, or a similar stimulus previously Conditioning associated conditioning between neutral and innately meaningful stimuli Habituation:decrease in attention to familiar stimuli over time

Answer 42

mental shortcut that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world

Answer 43

Involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype

Answer 44

Involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our mind, yet we sometimes make mistakes…

Answer 45

(confirmation bias, hindsight bias, researcher bias, etc.)

Answer 46

Something in the world that can vary and the researcher can measure Some examples: well-being, IQ self-esteem, health, depression and the list goes on and on…

Answer 47

The degree to which a tool measures what it claims to measure. Results satisfy objectives

Answer 48

The stability or consistency of the measure. Results are consistent

Answer 49

the degree to which the findings can be generalized outside the laboratory (可以被广泛应用的)

Answer 50

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study.（在实验情况内可靠）

Answer 51

Watching behavior in real world settings Watching animals in the wild Observing people in real life settings Definition Behavior is observed in the environment in which it occurs naturally. Advantages The subject’s behavior is more natural than behaviors taking place in the laboratory. Disadvantages The presence of an observer may alter the subject’s behavior. Low internal validity: the observed behavior may be specific to the individual and the setting, and may not generalize to other individuals in the population or other settings.

Answer 52

Examining one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period Definition Behavior of one person or a few people is studied (in depth). Advantages Rich descriptive information. May help form the research question. Disadvantages The case(s) studied may not be representative. Time-consuming and expensive. Observer bias. No conclusion about cause-and-effect.

Answer 53

List of question Advantage: Able to collect a big sample of data. This can apply to general situation It is cheap Disadvantage: People may lie in survey Information source could not be control

Answer 54

a research design that examines the effect to which two variables are related or associated. *“associated” “linked” “related” Definition Examines how two or more variables are related Advantages May clarify relationships between variables Disadvantages If two variables are correlated, it does not mean one variable causes the other. There could be a cause-and-effect relations, but you cannot assume one based on one correlational study

Answer 55

Start with hypothesis Experimental group the group(s) that receive the manipulation of the IV Control group a comparison group that does not receive the manipulation (or receives one unrelated to the independent variable) Definition One or more independent variables are systematically manipulated, and the effect of that manipulation on other dependent variables is studied Advantages Offers researchers the opportunity to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships (in contrast to correlational studies!) High internal validity Disadvantages Artificial lab settings and tasks (may compromise external validity) Confounding variables Many variables we want to study cannot be manipulated: age, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, number of children, race/ethnicity, religion, household income, neighborhood characteristics, level of education, employment status, work history, place of birth, immigration status, military service A TRUE Experiment requires two important things: Manipulation of the independent variable (and some level of control) Random assignment of participants to conditions

Answer 56

Each research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable Balances out known and unknown factors, increasing the likelihood that the groups are equivalent Each research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable Balances out known and unknown factors, increasing the likelihood that the groups are equivalent

Answer 57

Every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected helps to ensure your results are externally valid Vs. using a convenience sample sample of individuals conveniently available for the study

Answer 58

The flash memory that records the icon from what we see (visual record)

Answer 59

The ability to let others duplicate the experiment.

Answer 60

Advertising Acquisition of fears ◦ Watson and Rayner (1920): Little Albert Experiment Classical conditioning offers a way to get rid of phobias * Watson & Mary Cover Jones (1924) successfully treated 3-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with cookies

Answer 61

Conditioned taste aversions violate important principles of traditional classical conditioning: Conditioned taste aversion: classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food Requires only one trial for learning to take place CS-US delay can be 6 to 8 hours Very specific with little stimulus generalization

Answer 62

This type of learning allows individual to solve novel problems with creaive strategy

Answer 63

A sudden reappearance of an extinguished CR after a delay

Answer 64

People is hard to memorize things that they didn't put attention on

Test2 Flashcards

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