textbook COPY Flashcards

Question

There were three main reasonsfor ethnic discrimination

Answer 1

Although various forms of government had been set up in the colonies, indigenous people had been largely excluded from its administration. The result was that, when independence came, they had little or no experience of how to run a country, so independence often led to chaos. This chaos meant that opportunist insurgent groups were able to vie for political control. Much violence ensued. Perhaps most important of all, the colonial borders did not recognise or realise the importance of traditional ethnic and religious borders. The colonial boundaries often cut across these deeply-engrained lines. One supposes that the colonial powers were arrogant in thinking that colonial rule would soon neutralise any differences between traditional groupings. They could not have been more wrong.

Answer 2

There is plenty of evidence to suggest a broad correlation between human rights on the one hand and access to health and education on the other. Indeed, the UDHR has decreed such access to be one of the most basic human rights. The relationship probably also works in the other direction, namely that education at least should lead to a greater respect for other human rights. But does everyone want access to education and healthcare?

Answer 3

In many countries the struggles of women and ethnic minorities for equality have been long and persistent. The pace of progress varies from country to country: in some the goal has been achieved, but in others success is still a long way off.

Answer 4

Rwanda became a German colony in 1884 as part of German East Africa. Following Germany's defeat in the First World War (1914-18) it became a mandated territory under Belgian control. All the native people of Rwanda were believed to be drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda, so the Germans thought there was nothing wrong with its boundaries when they took it over. But what was not understood at the time was the existence of three distinct sub-groups within the Banyarwanda: Hutu (84 per cent of the population), Tutsi (fifteen per cent) and Taw (one per cent). During pre-European times, Rwanda had been a unified state largely controlled by the minority Tutsi. The Hutu were treated as second-class citizens by the dominant Tutsi. Before and since independence in 1962, the Hutu have struggled for supremacy. They were keen to convert their superiority in numbers into power. After 30 years of tension, matters came to a head in April 1994 when the Hutu decided to literally eliminate the Tutsi. Many Tutsi fled in terror to neighbouring countries but, within 100 days, around 800,000 of them were massacred. The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) - a rebel group composed mainly of Tutsi refugees based in neighbouring Uganda - invaded the country and regained control by July, whereupon 2 million Hutu fled the country. Today some stability has returned to Rwanda and the economy has recovered. It would be wrong to say that relations between the Hutu and Tutsi have healed. There is some irony in the present situation, however: while ethnic discrimination continues between Hutu and Tutsi, the country has one of the best gender equality records in the world.

Answer 5

There are an estimated 370 million indigenous people living in more than 70 countries. They account for about five per cent of the world's population. Around 46 million of them live in the Americas, with 40 million in Latin America where they account for thirteen per cent of the total population. In the USA, the figure is just under two per cent of the population, while in Canada it is just over four per cent. These indigenous peoples represent a rich diversity of cultures, religions, traditions and languages. They are a significant part of the world's biological diversity. Many are also stewards of the Earth's biological resources. Yet, these groups continue to face serious discrimination and are among the world's most marginalised peoples Indigenous communities and their environments are increasingly under threat from mining, oil extraction, dam and road building, logging and agro-industrial projects. They are being driven off their homelands and are ending up in towns and cities. They are, as it were, paying the costs of development yet enjoying none of the benefits. In short, indigenous people in the Americas, as elsewhere in the world, are poorer and less educated, are more likely to commit suicide, and are generally in worse health than the rest of the population. The plight of indigenous peoples is perhaps best summed up by an extract from a UN report: 'Children born into indigenous families often live in remote areas where governments do not invest in basic social services. Consequently [they) have limited or no access to healthcare, quality education, justice and participation. They are [even] at particular risk of not being registered at birth and of being denied identity documents.' What, then, do these people really want? One suspects that, if asked, most would say: 'Leave us alone and respect our human right to continue with our traditional way of life. But what about education and healthcare? Their answer could well be: 'What better education could you want than learning every day how to live with the natural environment. And why are you now harvesting our traditional medicinal plants?' The fact is that not everyone wishes to live in the information age and in the material comfort so prized by the global majority today. It is the duty of that majority to respect the human rights and lands of these very small minorities.

Answer 6

Afghanistan has undergone immense changes in the last 40 years, but not necessarily for the good. During that time it has been occupied by Soviet troops and an international force led by the USA. In between, it has been ruled by various militant groups and the highly oppressive Taliban. As a consequence, women's rights have experienced fluctuating fortunes. Prior to the Soviet invasion in 1979, women's rights in Afghanistan had made some progress. They were first given the vote in 1919 (only a year after women in the UK). In the 1950s, purdah (gender separation) was abolished. In the following decade, a new constitution gave women equality in a number of important aspects of life, including being able to stand in elections at all levels. During the 1980s and 1990s, and particularly under Taliban rule, the rights of women in Afghanistan were gradually withdrawn. The Taliban enforced their version of Sharia law. Women and girls were banned from: * going to school or studying * working * leaving the house without a male chaperone * accessing healthcare delivered by men (with women showing their skin in public forbidden from working, healthcare was therefore virtually inaccessible) * being involved in politics or speaking publicly. These and other restrictions made Afghan women essentially prisoners in their homes. If a woman left her home accompanied by a male relative, she would have to wear a burqa (a full body veil). The punishment for any transgression was, to say the least, brutal and inhumane. In 2001 a military coalition led by the USA entered the country. Indeed, the plight of women was one of the justifications for the military intervention. The Taliban was ousted and gradually women's rights were restored. However, with the gradual withdrawal of the troops, the Taliban and other insurgent groups now control some parts of the country. Today, women are once again routinely discriminated against, abused and persecuted Once again, equality seems a very distant dream for Afghan women.

Answer 7

With a population of about 9 million and 35 different ethnic groups, Bolivia is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Latin America. Over 60 per cent of the population is classified as indigenous while 30 per cent are mestizo (of mixed European and Amerindian descent). Since the early 1990s there has been a strong move to recognise indigenous identity and culture, as well as the rights of these people. Attempts have been made to involve indigenous people in national policy making. While progress has been made culturally, socially and politically, the indigenous people remain marginalised in economic terms. Most continue to live in extreme poverty. President Morales, from an indigenous tribe himself, is recognised as a champion of indigenous rights and the environment However, he is increasingly criticised for failing to deliver on the reduction of poverty among indigenous people, as distinct from the mestizo. The challenge here is that, despite the sale of primary products, Bolivia is still the poorest country in South America. Per capita GDP stands at only US$3150. The record with respect to gender equality is worse. For example, gender violence causes more death and disability among women aged 15 to 44 than do cancer, malaria, traffic accidents or war. Around 50 per cent of Bolivian women from a variety of backgrounds have admitted to having been subject to physical abuse in their lifetime Bolivia also has the highest rate of maternal mortality in South America. Women have little access to services such as cancer screening and sexual health education. In short, women still play a subordinate role in Bolivian society. This, combined with their lack of education, means that they do not have a voice to call for their human rights. Some ask, why does President Morales not take up this cause? Afghanistan exemplifies discrimination on the basis of gender. In Bolivia the need is for more equality for both indigenous groups and women. Australia stands as a shining example of a progressive society in which good levels of equality have been achieved both for women and most ethnic groups

Answer 8

It is remarkable to note that, up to the Second World War, Australia pursued a so-called whites only immigration policy. Its main aim was to prevent Chinese miners and Pacific Island labourers from entering the country. The policy was slightly misnamed, however; while it favoured people from English-speaking countries, it discriminated against those from Southern and Eastern Europe. The policy was gradually dropped after the Second World War. While immigration is still carefully controlled, today Australia has become one of the world's most multicultural countries. Entry to Australia has been largely governed by its need for specific skills in its labour force. Its citizens come from literally around the world. More than 40 per cent of Australians now have national origins other than British or Irish, while just over two per cent are indigenous peoples. Australia is widely recognised as having one of the best records relating to human rights. There is little discrimination, perhaps because of its rich mix of ethnic groups However, there are currently three areas of concern: The treatment of asylum seekers and refugees, particularly preventing them from entering the country and processing their claims offshore The need to do more to protect the rights of disabled people

Answer 9

With regard to the last of these, there is the feeling that Australian society should be more inclusive towards indigenous people. As we saw in Chapter 10 (page 184), it seems that the plight of the Aboriginal people is not responding to the relatively high levels of expenditure earmarked for their education and healthcare. Is it possible that the Aboriginals feel, like their counterparts in the Americas, that they do not wish to be included? Would they rather be left alone and allowed to follow their traditional lifestyles? If this is their wish, can Australia deliver it? In conclusion, it should have become evident that there are variations in human rights within countries, and that the degree of variation may reflect different levels of social development. All people may be equal, but they are not so when it comes to wealth, freedom and opportunity. This is because there are other factors at work, such as the type of government, the distribution of political power and deeply rooted cultural traditions.

Answer 10

The focus in geopolitics is on political power in relation to geographic space. Geopolitical interventions are the exercise of a country's power in order to influence the course of events outside its borders. For most countries, geopolitical interventions are very much the nuts and bolts of foreign policy. It should also be made clear from the start that the sort of political power we will be talking about is rooted in economic strength. So, the broad scenario to be investigated is one where the most powerful countries (the superpowers) seek to assist, mould or control less-powerful countries.

Answer 11

humanitarian: Offering development aid to the poorest and least-developed countries. Protecting human rights. Encouraging education and healthcare. mutual benefit: Strengthening security and stability. Promoting international trade and protecting trade routes. Accessing resources. Encouraging inward investment. self-seeking: Providing military support. Increasing global or regional influence.

Answer 12

development aid economic support military power.

Answer 13

Development aid has two main delivery routes: bilateral and multilateral. bilateral aid allows a donor country to pursue its own agenda and to target aid at preferred countries and objectives. With multilateral aid, in theory, the donor country has virtually no control. Except that powerful countries do control the UN and World Bank, and so influence their policies and development agenda. Much of the financial aid given by developed countries today is recorded by the OECD under the heading of Official Development Assistance (ODA). Most of this money is bilateral aid, so the donor country has some say as to how the money is spent by the receiver country. it should be the quality of aid that counts rather than simply its quantity. ODA is usually multi-targeted. The targets are made fairly transparent and they often involve promoting respect for human rights. But there are others, such as confronting poverty, terrorism, HIV/AIDS, poor governance and corruption. All have an impact on human development. There are different forms of aid but much is in the form of loans. Unfortunately for the borrowing country, loans attract interest and, ultimately, loans have to be repaid. It is all too easy for receiver countries to enter a downward spiral of increasing debt. More acceptable to receiver countries is what is known as technical assistance. This involves the transfer of expertise, technology and education. It is thought that this can contribute more to human development than capital loans. Certainly, technical assistance is more effective in supporting 'bottom-up' approaches to development. In this day and age, it is 'cool' to be cynical and suspicious, and aid has not escaped this type of scrutiny. There are those who view it as being undertaken for ulterior and possibly subversive reasons, but might it not be that philanthropy and caring for humanity still exist in some parts of world?

Answer 14

Aid that is delivered on a one-to-one basis between a donor and a recipient country

Answer 15

Aid (usually financial, sometimes technical) given by donor countries to international aid organisations such as the World Bank or Oxfam. These organisations distribute the aid to what they deem to be deserving causes.

Answer 16

A term used by the OECD to measure aid. It is widely used as an indicator of flows of international aid.

Answer 17

transfers of resources, either in cash or in the form of commodities or services.

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