The Biological Mind Flashcards
What are the aspects of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS): The brain and spinal cord
Spinal cord: A long cylinder of neural tissue extending from the medulla of the brain down to the middle of the back
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Protects the CNS
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The nerves exiting the CNS that carry sensory and motor information to and from the rest of the body
* Not encased in bone
Aspects of the Spinal Cord
- Only 2% of the weight of the entire CNS
-Functions are vital, as evidenced by the functional challenges accompanying spinal damage
-Serves as a conduit for information flowing to and from the brain along large bundles of nerve fibres
Spinal reflexes: Reflexes initiated by spinal cord without assistance from brain (ie knee jerk reflex)
What the the types of neurons?
Sensory neurons: Carry information from the external environment or from the
body back to the CNS
Motor neurons: Carry commands from the CNS back to the muscles and glands of the body
Interneurons: Neurons that have neither sensory nor motor function
* Travel through the spinal cord
What are the aspects of the brain stem?
Brainstem: Contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla
Medulla: Lies just above the spinal cord; contains large bundles of nerve fibres that travel to and from higher brain levels
* Manages essential functions such as heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure
* Damage to this area usually results in quick death
Pons: Relay center located between the medulla and the midbrain
* Involved with the management of sleep, arousal, and facial expressions
* Connects cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Cerebellum: Participates in skilled movements and, in humans, complex cognitive processing
* Maintains balance and motor coordination; affected by alcohol
Midbrain: Lies between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres; involved in sensory reflexes, movement, and pain
Reticular formation: A collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem; participates in mood, arousal, and sleep
What are the subcortical structures?
Subcortical = “below the cortex”
Thalamus: Involved with the processing of sensory information (sensory relay center), states of arousal, and learning and memory
**Basal ganglia: **A collection of subcortical structures that participate in the control of voluntary movement (implicated in Parkinson’s disease)
Hypothalamus: Involved in motivation and homeostasis through regulating thirst, temperature, hunger, sexual behaviour, and aggression
Hippocampus: Essential in the formation of long-term memories
Cingulate cortex: Above the corpus callosum
* Its anterior segment participates in decision making and emotion
* Its posterior segment participates in memory and visual processing
Amygdala: Located in the temporal lobe and believed to participate in emotional processing (particularly fear and aggression)
Nucleus accumbens: Participates in reward and addiction (active during eating, sex, gambling addictive behaviours…)
What are the components of the cerebrum? (4 Lobes)
Corpus callosum: A wide band of nerve fibres connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres
Cerebral cortex: The thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres
* Localized functions in the cerebral cortex
The cerebrum can be divided into four lobes:
* Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Frontal lobe: The most forward lobe; location of the primary motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, Broca’s area; responsible for complex cognitive processes (decision making, speech, higher level cognition)
Parietal lobe: Lies at the top of the head between the frontal and the occipital lobes; location of the primary somatosensory cortex (processes touch)
Occipital lobe: The lobe located at the back of the brain; location of the primary visual cortex (processes vision)
Temporal lobe: The lobe that curves around the side of each hemisphere; location of the primary auditory cortex (processes hearing), Wernicke’s area
What are mirror neurons and their functions? Who studied them?
Early 1990’s: Giacomo Rizzolatti and a team of italian scientists were studying the brain correlates of movement
- Certain neurons in the monkey’s brain became active when reaching for a piece of peanut, but also when the monkey observed the experimenter pick
up a piece of food to place it within his mouth and eat
- Scientists believed that mirror neurons provided a mechanism for understanding the actions and the intentions of others
- Research on humans involves brain imaging so we see the activity of larger areas of the brain (mirror "systems") rather than single neurons - It does appear that human beings possess mirror systems that help understand the actions, emotions, and intentions of others
What are the functions of the Right and Left Brain?
- A special type of localization of function in the cerebral cortex is known as lateralization, or the localization of a function in either the right or the left cerebral hemisphere
- Movement and sensation on the right side of the body are processed by the left hemisphere
- Movement and sensation on the left side of the body by the right hemisphere
- Hemisphere dominance does not predict occupational choice or artistic talent
What is the function of Laterization?
- Lateralization might provide organisms with the ability to
multitask - Human lateralization of brain structures might have made
language possible, however, may account for our vulnerabilities
for schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder
What are the aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System?
Somatic nervous system: A division of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the CNS and transmits commands to the muscles
Autonomic nervous system: A division of the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of glands, organs, and smooth muscles
* The autonomic nervous system can be further divided into 3 systems
What are the 3 divisions of the Autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic nervous system: Coordinates arousal and the stress response (activates fight or flight response)
Parasympathetic nervous system: Activity is associated with rest, repair, and energy storage (activates rest and digest response)
Enteric nervous system: A division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the GI tract
What is the Endocrine System? What is it responsible for?
- A system responsible for the release of hormones (from glands) into the bloodstream
- Important glands: the pineal gland, the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland, the adrenal glands, islets of langerhans and the ovaries in females and testes in males
- Responds to input from the nervous system and from the hypothalamus in particular
- Especially involved with: arousal, metabolism, growth and sex
What are the glands of the Endocrine system?
Pineal Gland - important in the maintenance of our sleep—wake cycles
* chemical hormone is melatonin
* melatonin is normally released in the early evening, and it breaks down in the presence of light
Pituitary Gland - many of the hormones it releases activate other glands
* pituitary hormones include oxytocin, vasopressin, and human growth hormone
* oxytocin and vasopressin participate in functions such as breastfeeding and maintenance of fluid levels, respectively
* growth hormone stimulates growth and regeneration
* pituitary hormones control the production and release of sex hormones by the ovaries and the testes, initiating puberty and maintaining fertility
Thyroid Gland - raises or lowers your rate of metabolism, or the
chemical processes your body needs to sustain life
* low levels of thyroid can mimic the symptoms of depression
Adrenal Glands - activated by pituitary glands during times of stress
* release other hormones, including cortisol, that travel throughout the body and the brain to provide a general wake-up message
Islets of Langerhans - located in the pancreas, produce hormones
essential to digestion, including insulin
What is the anatomy of a neuron?
Neuron: A cell of the nervous system that is specialized for sending and receiving neural messages
Cell body: Large, central mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus
Axon: Branch of a neuron that is usually responsible for transmitting information to other neurons
Dendrite: A branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from other neurons
Myelin: Insulating material covering axons, allows for rapid conduction
What is a Glia Cell?
- Another type of important cell in the nervous system
- Provide a structural matrix for neurons
- Form tight connections with blood vessels and establish the blood-brain barrier, which prevents toxins from entering the brain
- Some glia also have the important role of myelinating neurons
