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Microbiology Exam 2 C,D,E > The Central Dogma, (Exam II) > Flashcards

The Central Dogma, (Exam II) Flashcards

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1
Q

The Central Dogma

A

the source and order of ALL genetic information into function in organisms

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2
Q

The Central Dogma: Main Concepts:

A

*DNA is the carrier of genetic information
DNA is replicated to pass. On the information
DNA is transcribed into mRNA
*mRNA is the chemical messenger of information
MRNA is translated into protein
*proteins are the functional units of life (structure, carriers, and enzymes) that maintain it

IT IS A CYCLE

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3
Q

REPLICATION : DNA—>RNA—>PROTEIN

A

DNA - Transcription - RNA - Translation ( Ribosomes) - Protein - (DNA Polymerase)

DNA (RNA Polymerase) Transcription to RNA
RNA (Ribosomes ) Translation to Protein
Protein (DNA Polymerase) to DNA

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4
Q

Proteins: Examples

A

Muscle
Skin, hair, fingernails, claws (collagen, keratin)
Pepsin (digestive enzyme in stomach)
Insulin (hormone that controls blood sugar levels

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5
Q

Primary structure of proteins

A

The particular sequence of amino acids that is the backbone of a peptide chain or protein

Ala-Leu-Cys-Met

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6
Q

Secondary structure : Alpha Helix

A

Three dimensional arrangement of amino acids with the polypeptide chain in the corkscrew shape

Held by H-bonds between the -NH group and the -C=O

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7
Q

Secondary structure : Beta Pleated Sheet

A

Polypeptide chains are arranged side by side
Hydrogen bonds form between chains
R groups of extend above and below the sheet
Typical of fibrous proteins such as silk

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8
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

Specific overall shape of a protein due to function group interaction from each chain

Cross links between R groups of amino acids in chain
Disulfide. -S-S
Ionic. -COO————+H3N-
H-bonds. C=O <——>HO-
Hydrophobic. -CH3. H3C-

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9
Q

tertiary structure examples

A

Specific overall shape of a protein

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10
Q

Quaternary structure

A

Protein assembly with two or more chains

E.g. hemoglobin
Four polypeptide chains

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11
Q

Proteins: Globular

A

Spherical
Insulin
Hemoglobin
Enzymes
Antibodies

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12
Q

Proteins: Fibrous

A

Long, thin fibers
Hair
Wool
Skin
Nails

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13
Q

Denaturation
Disruption of secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure by

A

*Heat/organics: break apart H-bonds and disrupt hydrophobic attractions
*acids/bases: break H-bonds between polar R groups and ionic bonds
*heavy metal ions: react with S-S bonds to form solids
*Agitation: stretches chains until bonds break

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14
Q

Denaturation in daily life

A

Hard boiling an egg
Wiping the skin with alcohol swab for injection
Cooking food to destroy E. Coli
Heat used to cauterize blood vessels
Autoclave sterilizes instruments
Milk is heated to make yogurt

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15
Q

Nuclei acids are the genetic material of the cell and are composed of recurring monomeric units call

A

Nucleotides

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16
Q

The nuclei acids DNA and RNA are

A

Polymers of nucleotides

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17
Q

Penrose sugar. DNA. RNA

A

Base composition. Adenine (A). Adenine (A)
Guanine (G). Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C). Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T). Uracil (U)

Number of strands. Double Stranded. Single Stranded
Forms a Double Helix

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18
Q

Genetics Preview: Gene

A

Portion (sequence) of DNA nucleotides that are the blueprint for one protein (Trait)

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19
Q

Genetics Preview: Genome

A

Collection of genes of an organism

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20
Q

Genetics Preview: Genotype

A

Specific gene “type”

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21
Q

Genetics Preview: Phenotype

A

Observable, physical or functional traits for a genotype

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22
Q

Central Dogma Explained

A

DNA info is in the form of specific sequences of bases along the DNA strands

The DNA leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of proteins through sequences of DNA called genes

Proteins are the links between genotype and phenotype

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23
Q

What it boils down to

Each Human (how many cells)

A

40-80 trillion cells

23 chromosomes pairs
2m of DNA
3 billion DNA subunits
Approx 25,000 genes coding for proteins to perform all life functions

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24
Q

DNA Structure-

A

Nucleotides

Nitrogenous Bases
Sugar - Deozyribose

Phosphate groups

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25
DNA structure: Sugar
Sugar: Deoxyribose Penrose = 5 Carbon There is no O on 2 carbon
26
DNA structure : Phosphates
1-3 phosphate groups will attach to 5 C Phosphodiester Bond
27
DNA structure : Bases
Attach at the 1 C Two types of bases: Purines and Pyrimidines
28
Bases: Purines have
Adenine and Guanine
29
Base: Pyrimidines have
Cytosine and Thymine
30
DNA Properties
Polarity Strandedness Antiparallelicity Complementarity
31
DsDNA
Double stranded Sugar-phosphate backbone Polar (two different ends) Complementary
32
DNA Polymerization
Nucleotides bond together by dehydration reactions
33
DNA polymerization (Polarity)
Result of polymerization is a single strand of DNA with two different ends
34
Strandedness
Double stranded Chargaff’s Rule #’s A = #’s T C = G
35
Bond —> Hydrogen Bonds
Chargaff’s Rules —> COUNTS how many A, G, T, C, are in DNA Property # A = # T # G = # C Properties : Interact —> H-Bonds Complementary
36
Base Pairing
Complementary base pairing: Chargaff’s Rule A pairs (hydrogen bonds) with T C pairs with G
37
Antiparallel
The two strands of DNA base - pair with each other: Template strand Coding strand Antiparallel fashion 5’ end of left strand pairs with 3’ end of right strand, etc 5’————>3’ 3’————>5’
38
Overall
G-C base pair in ( DNA and RNA) A-T base pair (DNA)
39
Chromosome structure
Most human cells isolate their DNA nucleus <— Eukaryotic Cells Bacteria? Prokaryotic cells
40
Chromosome structure: Eukaryotic
Chromosome is linear 2 copies present = diploid DNA double stranded helix is extremely long EUK’s use positively charged proteins *histones: wind the double stranded helix around to compact it
41
Histones
Wind the double stranded helix around to compact it
42
More DNA
Extra-nuclear DNA (5%) Activated by complexes with nuclear DNA products Used for replication of organelles Mitochondria Chloroplasts Plasmids Fungi Protista Prokaryotes
43
Prokaryotic chromosome structure
Archaea + Bacteria In cytoplasm (no nucleus) ——-nucleotides region
44
Prokaryotes use
Histones-like proteins (HU) to wind DNA around to compact it
45
Prokaryotes chromosome is
Circular -single copy = haploid
46
DNA function
DNA holds the blueprints for the construction of all of the proteins made by cells Blueprint comes in sections: Genes (Humans approx 25K) Genes are instructions to build specific products: PROTEIN
47
Replication Basics
One Cell separates into Two Parent —-> Daughter Cells DNA must be replicated faithfully for both daughter cells
48
Parent dsDNA
Each original (old) strand is a template Produce two new alternating complementary strands Each daughter inherits one new strand, one old strand Semi-conservative replication
49
DNA Replication
Overall process Players Replication Steps
50
DNA replication : overall process
Duplicates the DNA blueprint (both strands) so that daughter cells can obtain the exact same genetic material
51
DNA replication : Replication
Signals Origin of Replication (Multiple)
52
DNA replication : Players
DNA strands DNA Topoisomerase + Gyrase DNA Helicase RNA Primase DNA polymerase DNA nucleotides (dNTP’s)
53
DNA replication : Steps
Unwind Unzip Prime Replicate Bidirectional No end
54
Replication Errors
DNApol build polymers @ 1000 NTs/s Errors 1/10 5
55
RNA
Ribonucleic Acid
56
Replication —-> DNA
Transcription RNA
57
What is mRNA
DNA is the blueprint for how the proteins are to be made: DNA cannot be read directly by the protein making machinery. Thus, and intermediary is needed (messenger RNA) Decodes blueprint (transcription)
58
Transcription only reads
Individual genes, not the entire code. Ribosomes build proteins according to the DNA plans (genes) RNA polymerase uses DNA blueprint and transcribes the information into a language the ribosomes can understand
59
3 types of RNA + Function All necessary to do protein synthesis
ribosomal RNA part of the structure of ribosome (protein-enzyme used to build protein) rRNA Transfer RNA functions as helper to bring correct amino acids to ribosome to build new protein: tRNA Messenger RNA product of transcription of DNA coding strand (a.k.a. Transcript) mRNA
60
Structure of RNA
Nitrogenous Bases Sugar (D->R) Phosphate groups
61
RNA Structure: Bases
Cytosine Guanine Adenine Uracil (takes Thymine’s place)
62
RNA structure: Sugar
Penrose = 5 C Ribose there IS an O on 2’ carbon
63
Function of mRNA
Decoding the DNA Converting DNA —> RNA Transcription RNA transcript (RNA strand decoded from DNA)
64
Reading the DNA bases bases as a template to polymerize a single strand of RNA complementary to the DA template strand
MRNA—->Transcription for gene expression
65
RNA transcription: overall process
Decoding the DNA blueprint so that ribosomes can read the RNA and make proteins
66
RNA transcription: Players
DNA template strand RNA polymerase RNA nucleotides (rNTP’s)
67
RNA Transcription: Transcription
Signals Promoter: start site of transcription Terminator: Signal for RNA Polymerase to stop process
68
RNA Transcription: Steps
Initiation Elongation Termination
69
Messenger RNA (mRNA) translation
The process where the ribosomes read the mRNA transcript and make a protein based on the transcript Energy - dependent : GTP
70
Ribosome translation of mRNA: Overall process
Functionalities the decoded genetic blueprint into proteins (traits)
71
Ribosome translation of mRNA: Players
Ribosomes Transcript mRNA With amino acids tRNA
72
Ribosome translation of mRNA: Translation
Signals Start code Stop code
73
Ribosome translation of mRNA: Steps
Initiation Elongation Termination
74
Translation mRNA: Method
MRNA is read by ribosomes Ribosomes read mRNA nucleotides at a time (Codon) Ribosomes build amino acids via tRNA
75
Translation mRNA Code:
Wobble Redundancy
76
Translation mRNA: Ribosomes
Review: Ribosomal anatomy Small subunit E: Exit P: Polymerizer A: Acceptor
77
Translation mRNA: Method : Assembly
MRNA Ribosomal subunits
78
Translation mRNA: Method: Add proper
Amino acids one at a time Brought by tRNA TRNA attach amino acids via anti-codon Continues until entire gene is read
79
Translation mRNA: Method : Sequences
Start Codon AUG stop Codon UAA UGA UAG
80
TRANSLATION mRNA
Initiation: large subunit & small subunit 5’ Elongation: Ribosome- mRNA———->this is the Direction of translation Termination: Polypeptide chain 3’
81
Genetic Expression
Constitutive: active (75%) Facultative: Expressed as needed Regulation Expression regulating TXN, TLN Induction Repression
82
Operons
Bacterial methods of regulation
83
operons are
Genes + promoters simultaneously controlled Operator elements (sequences)
84
Classic Operons
Lactose Tryptophan
85
Lactose Operons (inducible) E. Coli
Promoter: blocked by repressor Operator: constitutively expressed 3 genes expressed: transport and catabolism of Lactose Process: constitutively active regulatory gene Repressor protein expressed : prevents RNApol binding
86
RNA control
RNA- induced silencing complex (RISC) Small interfering RNA (siRNA) Riboswitches
87
What does the draft human genome sequence tell us
The human genome contains 3164.7 million chemical nucleotide bases (A, C, T, and G) The average gene consists of 3000 bases The total number of genes is estimated at 25k Almost all (99.9%) nucleotide bases are the same in all people The functions are unknown for over 66% of discovered genes
88
Mutation
Any change from the original DNA nucleotide sequence
89
Chromosomal Mutations
Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation
90
What happens after DNA mutates ? Pt. 1
Change in mRNA sequence which does not change the a.a. Sequence of the. Protein
91
Change in the mRNA sequence which does change the a.a. Sequence of the protein
Change from GAA to GUA can cause Glutamic acid to be substituted by Valine MISSENSE MUTATION
92
MISSENSE
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
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WHAT happens after DNA mutates ? Pt. 3
Change in mRNA sequence which causes a ribosome to find an early STOP signal Nonsense mutation
94
Mutation + causes: classification: Spontaneous Mutation
Errors in replication Errors in repair Recombination Plasmids, lysogeny/latency
95
Mutation + causes: classification: Artificial Mutation
Physical mutagens Chemical Mutagens
96
Mutation + causes: classification: Rate
DNA ApolIII Proof reads Mistakes /10 to the 5th Yield 1/10 to the tenth Mutagens Increase 10 - 1000X
97
Mutation + causes: classification: Evolution
Selection of non-deleterious mutations
98
Artificial Mutagens: Physical Mutation:
Ionizing radiation: x-rays, y-rays- break bonds Non-ionizing Radiation: UV - Pyrimidines dimers
99
Artificial Mutagens: Chemical Mutation:
Nucleotide analogs: inhibit polymerases. And. Cause mismatched BP Not-altering chemicals: cause substitutions Frameshift mutagens: insertion or deletion by a chemical

Microbiology Exam 2 C,D,E (3 decks)

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