The Child and Adolescent Flashcards
(151 cards)
1
Q
In this stage, the _______ shows limited amounts of motion.
A
Newborn
2
Q
The __________ learns to develop responses to any external stimulus. He/she exhibits the grasp reflex, wherein he/she grasps any object that is placed on his/her hand. You may try to put your finger on his/her hand, he/she could reach for it and grasp it. The newborn also shows the startle reflex, where he/she reacts to any loud noise or to sudden movements.
A
newbom
3
Q
The term “variation” refers to the variation of movements that _______ produce during motor development. As infants experiment through trial and error with all different movements, this experience provides vital input for the developing nervous system.
A
Infant
4
Q
Variation helps develop a repertoire of efficient functional movements and allows for variability, which is knowing what movement to do in a certain situation. Limited variation and variability can be indications of abnormal motor development.
At this stage, the _______ shows many new developmental abilities. At three to six months, he/she starts to move about more. The ________ is able to control his/her head and start playing with his/her hands and legs. After months, he/she respond to his/her name when called, sit up without support, and then start to stand with support. This age is also when he/she starts to babble. The _______ learns to turn to the side and eventually learns to sit. After nine months, he/she may start crawling. He/she also shows more dexterity in his/her fingers and can pick up objects by pinching them with his/her thumbs. He/she would develop control over his/her hands before having control of his/her feet. He/she would later be able to stand and then start to learn how to walk with support.
A
Infant
5
Q
By this time, the ______ can walk by himself/herself. His/her language skills develop and is now capable of communicating his/her wishes with words. He also learns how to say “no.” At this stage, he/she continues to go through emotional development and learns to regulate his/her emotions.
A
Toddler
6
Q
Learning routines like dinnertime routines and bedtime routines would help prepare ___________ for routine tasks they would be learning when they start school.
A
Toddler
7
Q
At this stage, most children enter schools and receive formal learning. The teacher plays a big role in a child’s life starting from this stage. This time, many children transition from home to school, move through different preschool levels, and then transition to elementary level.
A
Preschooler
8
Q
The _________ develops both gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are the movements of large muscles, like walking, running, or jumping. Fine motor skills refer to tiny muscle movements that are precise, like writing, drawing, cutting. or sewing. He/she shows great interest in arts and crafts, drawing, and writing.
A
preschooler
9
Q
__________ in the brain is the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through our senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste). It is an outcome of complex functions of the nervous system. The capacity for perception is essential for good motor control. It is dependent on normal brain growth and the development of the sensory nervous system. The ability to recognize sensory stimuli is the basis for understanding, learning, and knowing how to react. This plays a major role in cognitive development as well as socioemotional development, which will be discussed in the succeeding units of this module
A
Perception
10
Q
The ___________in motor development. Motor development moves in a cephalocaudal pattern (from head to foot). Babies start to be able to control their eyes to track an object, then later, are able to move their head from side to side. Babies learn to control the trunk of their body before they can master their extremities. Motor development also progresses in a proximodistal fashion (from center of the body outward to the extremities).
A
Patterns
11
Q
He is responsible for the sociocultural theory. The key contribution of his theory is the emphasis on the role of social interactions in cognitive development. His other contributions are the concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and the use of scaffolding, language, and private speech
A
Lev Vygotsky (1978)
12
Q
He emphasized the role of social and cultural influences on cognitive development. He believes social interaction with others contributes to constructivism. He says culture determines what students learn, how they learn it, and what materials are available to learn it. Cultural values and customs actually dictate what is important to learn.
A
Lev Vygotsky
13
Q
Heproposed that private speech in children correlates with rates of social interaction. He said that when children are raised in mentally stimulating and language stimulating environments, the earlier these children engage in private speech. He observed this in children from higher socioeconomic status (SES) compared to those in low SES.
A
Vygotsky (1987)
14
Q
He says that if a child acts on his/her own, he/she f permanent mental models, as opposed to when a child is told the facts, he/she mo Just memorize them in a superficial way.
A
(Piaget, 1970)
15
Q
He is the theorist behind Discovery Learning. This is where a student is given opportunities for problem-solving, and where they are required to draw from past experiences and current knowledge to discover facts, relationships, and new knowledge
A
Jerome Bruner (1990)
16
Q
He was said to be influenced by the theory of Lev Vygotsky, acknowledging the role of the teacher, language, and instruction. He agrees that social interaction plays an important role in learning. He believes that the different problem-solving processes, that each student goes through, varies in each person
A
Jerome Bruner
17
Q
It is a theory that says knowledge is constructed through interaction with others. They believe that knowledge is constructed, not merely applied, just like cognitive constructivism, but they take into account the influence of the social interactions and cultural context, learning in a collaborative process.
A
Social constructivism
18
Q
It is the states that knowledge is actively constructed by leamers based on their cognitive capacities, relative to their stage of cognitive development. Learning is an active process of assimilation and accommodation. Learning is an active, contextual, personal process of constructing knowledge rather than a passive acquisition of knowledge.
A
Cognitive Constructivism
19
Q
Constructivism has 5 types what is it?
A
Individual Cognitive Constructivism (Piaget)
Social Constructivism (Dewey, Vygotsky)
Radical Constructivism (von Glasersfeld)
Cultural Constructivism (Hutchinson)
Critical Constructivism (Fluery)
Constructivism (von Glasersfeld)
20
Q
He is known as the philosophical founder of cognitive constructivism. He did not believe in repetitive, rote memorization of facts. He thinks learning should be “directed living” where learners engage in real-world, practical experience where they can demonstrate what they know through creativity and collaboration.
A
John Dewey (1933/1998)
21
Q
He is known for his Theory of Cognitive Development and Developmentally Appropriate Practice, discussed in the previous lesson. Another implication of his theory of cognitive development is the Constructivist Teaching.
A
Jean Piaget (1972)
22
Q
Recall that he proposed that children progress through a sequence of four stages in cognitive abilities as they grow. He also proposed that learners cannot be forced to learn key cognitive tasks if they are not yet ready. or if they have not reached particular stages in cognitive development.
A
Jean Piaget (1972)
23
Q
You would believe something new if it is connected or if it fits into your existing concepts. Later on, you might find out that the little “facts,” as you have always believed, were actually not true. It would be easy to believe that all homeless people are “lazy,” all children who do not have good grades in school are “lazy,” or the people who live in third world countries are “lazy.” These are very much connected to your previous beliefs.
A
Connectedness
24
Q
it was mentioned that a person learns things by integrating them with interpretive resources that would make him/her understand things in a certain way. However, that same person may have other, and not just one, interpretive resources and may interpret things in another way. The teacher may have started with a different example or a different language, or the person may have had a family problem or a fight at home or along the way to school, or had an encounter with a bully just before class, or sometimes, had seen something on TV that contradicts or complements what the teacher is saying
A
Multiplicity
25
This is all about having things that are implied but not necessarily plainly expressed. So much of what we know is implied without being stated, and that is important.
Implicitness
26
It is the stage of (0 to 2 years) At this stage, the infant learns about the world using its senses (hearing, smell, sight, touch, taste) and through hit her actions, starting with the reflexes, then moving around and exploring his/her environment. This is why children at this age do not just look at things, but they also touch, smell, listen to, and taste them, most of the time putting things into their mouth.
Sensorimotor
27
The child begins to use imitation, memory, and thought. At this stage, they recognize people, texture, objects, sights, and emotions. By 4 months old, the infant becomes aware of things beyond its own body, then later on learns to do things intentionally. With an increase in mobility, there is a consequent increase in cognitive development
Sensorimotor
28
During this stage, the infant lives in the present. It seems not to have any mental picture in its memory for objects, so that to him/her, when he cannot see an object, that object ceases to exist. This is why when you hide a toy even in his/her presence, the infant will not look for it. This is also why the game of "peek-a-boo" seems very interesting to children this age. Later on, at about 8 months, the infant will realize that objects still exist even when hidden. This cognitive ability is called __________. The child at this stage will also move from mere reflex actions to goal-oriented activity. Other cognitive abilities that would develop at this stage are self-recognition, deferred imitation, and representational play
object permanence
29
In this stage of (2 to 7 years). By this stage, the toddler incorporates language in his/her understanding of the world. He/she acquires the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery
Preoperational
30
At this stage, the child will have difficulty seeing other people's point of view. The child's thinking starts out as "egocentric" or centered on the child's own view of the world. Later on, he/she will develop from egocentric speech ("I," "me," "myself,"name of child) to "socialized speech.
Preoperational
31
This theory of cognitive development presents how a child creates a mental model of the world. He believes that cognitive intelligence is not a fixed trait, but rather a process which occurs as a child's biological maturation and his/her interaction with the environment
Jean Piaget's (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development
32
This theory is focused on the development rather than the process of learning specific information or specific behaviors. In his observations of children, Piaget noticed discrete stages of cognitive development, marked by distinct differences and not a gradual increase in complexity of behaviors or ideas.
Jean Piaget's (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development
33
This theory is focused on the development rather than the process of learning specific information or specific behaviors. In his observations of children, Piaget noticed discrete stages of cognitive development, marked by distinct differences and not a gradual increase in complexity of behaviors or ideas.
Jean Piaget's (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development
34
He believes that children organize what they learn from experience, and interaction with the physical environment is critical for cognitive development. Piaget observed that children think in different ways at different age levels, and that cognitive development occurs in stages controlled by maturation. He believes everyone passes through these stages, although there may be individual differences in the rate at which we go through them. He identified four stages of mental growth, which build on each other. The age range specified are more or less the average age each child would reach each stage.
Piaget
35
What is Cognitive stages of Jean Piaget?,
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth- 2yrs old)
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older)
36
Is is the period of rapid brain change. During this time with the influx of hormones, the brain becomes very sensitive to new experiences, like rewards, novelty, and social experience. In short, they become interested in new things and in new people. Their emotions get very active but the networks involved in emotion regulation and impulse control are not yet well developed until later in their 20s. So we have a situation where there is a lot of impulsivity and emotional arousal at this stage in life, yet the ability to regulate that arousal is not yet developed. The challenge is the fact that at this stage, the adolescents are exposed to many new things that can potentially lead to negative consequences.
Adolescence
37
What can go wrong in brain development?
We know that brain development is affected by things and events in the environment. Brains are not just formed, they are also built over time based on one's experiences. Positive interaction between young children and their caregivers builds the foundation of a developing brain. Exposure to a smiling, loving caregiver or parent can affect brain development.
38
This means that there is iteration or repetition. As we go through life, we constantly build up our interpretive resources so we can make sense of the world. If you are a beginner, you try to use your interpretive resources to make sense of new things based on what you already know. That may mean your trend of thought is only in one direction. If you are an expert in one area, you can learn information very effectively. However, if you have a misconception and this is not corrected from the very start, you may have a difficult time trying to change the direction of your thoughts, because you might push for your misconception again and again.
Learning is iterative.
39
According to Constructivists, there are four dimensions to changing misconceptions, what are them:
acceptance,
connectedness
multiplicity
implicitness
40
We may know some things exist without believing in them, like folk tales or superstitions. We know that they are out there but we do not believe them. For instance, the superstition that if you break a mirror, it means seven years bad luck, or if you sit under a certain tree, you will get pregnant. We may know certain things but may not be committed to it. We do not necessarily believe it. However, some people are really committed to these.
Acceptance.
41
What are the 3 types of Information Processing?
Sensory memory
Working memory
Long-term memory
42
It assumes that knowledge is stored as cognitive symbols or symbolic mental constructions known as schema. The mental processes therefore try to facilitate symbol connection.
Cognitivism
43
It consider the mind to be like a computer, analyzing or processing information that gets in, and this causes certain outcomes.
Cognitivists
44
Is is a theoretical framework for understanding the mind that gained popularity in the 1950s. it was a response to Behaviorism's sole emphasis on observable outward behavior without emphasizing cognition.
Cognitivism
45
the acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes. Cognitivists share with behaviorists the belief that the study of learning should be objective, and learning theories should be developed from empirical research. In contrast to behaviorism, Cognitivism is less concerned with outward behaviors, and more concerned with inner processes or inner mental activities to understand how people learn. The results of watching, touching, or experiencing are major points in cognitive learning.
Cognitivism
46
According to the _________, learning happens through a process of taking in information they receive through the senses, organizing and storing the information, and retrieving it to form new meanings when needed
cognitive theory
47
This is from six to 12 years of age. In schools, the child is in the "primary school," "elementary" or "grade school," and "middle school. Physical growth is steady and gradual up until puberty. In puberty, another growth spurt occurs, with developmental maturation. Between the ages of six and 10 years, children grow in height for about 2 inches per year, slightly slower than the previous stage. Then when puberty hits, there is the most growth in height. In weight, there is also a rapid growth spurt; there is also a gain, with an average of 30 pounds for girls and 52 pounds for boys. Bone development continues.
School age
48
This is from 13 to 18 years. Although some children start puberty before the teen years, we will discuss more on puberty at this stage. Teenagers go through drastic physical, cognitive, and emotional changes during this stage. This is when identity and personality develop.
During teens, girls develop at a younger age than boys. Girls start puberty between ages 9 and 13, while boys start puberty around 11 to 14. Girls who start puberty grow to be much taller than boys who have not started puberty. In other words, their growth spurt happens earlier. The peak increase in height
Adolescent
49
According to constructivists, there are three key words in the nature of learning what are them :
incremental,
interpretive,
iterative.
50
Learning is _________ because active and deliberate learning requires focus in our working memories, and this has a very limited capacity. Therefore, w can process only a limited amount of material at a certain time. If someone is talking too fast, we do not get to catch everything he/she is saying. We learn things in chunks of information.
Learning is incremental
51
learning is ___________. Therefore, meanings are not directly communicated in words, gestures, symbol drawings, or other representations. Most often, language is a very convenient way of communication, especially if someone speaks the same language as we do. We often take it for granted and assume that this works all the time. But sometimes, this is not the case
learning is interpretive
52
Constructivists have four guiding principles, which are:
(1) Learning is a search for meaning. A learner must start with an issue in which learners are actively trying to construct meaning,
(2) Meaning requires understanding of the wholes and parts, studying both the big picture and analyzing the details, focusing on primary concepts and not isolated facts;
(3) Teachers must understand the mental models learners use to perceive the environment and what assumptions they make to support those mental models;
(4) Learning is when a learner individually constructs his/her own meaning from an experience
53
What are the 4 types of Constructivism Learning Model?
Concrete Experience
Observation and Reflection
Forming abstract concepts
Testing in new situations
54
In ________, the learner actively constructs his/her knowledge, making connections between existing schema (or knowledge) and his/her personal experiences. As a person experiencing something new, he/she internalizes it through his/her past experiences and previously established constructs
constructivism
55
What is Constructivism?
Constructivism is a learning theory that says learners construct knowledge instead of just receiving information passively. This happens when people make meaning or make sense from experience. As people experience the world. they reflect upon these experiences, creating their own representations and incorporating the new information with preexisting schemas or knowledge (or what they already know), as well as preexisting feelings, preferences, prejudices, fears, intuitions, biases, misconceptions, and so on.
56
There are implications for teaching other than behavior modification and classroom management. Teachers can model correct behaviors and provide extrinsic motivation to increase or maintain classroom engagement or participation of students.
Implications of Behaviorism for Teaching.
57
He suggested that the effect of reinforcement is not on learning but on the motivation to engage in a certain behavior, which was learned by other means. He was starting to introduce memory and representation, which he called "intervening variables." These variables cannot be measured directly, but can be measured indirectly by deducing behavior. This is shown in his experiments on "latent learning", where rats were placed in a maze, in which they seemingly memorized where to go and not to go, in order to get the food at the end of the maze. The rats that were given food each time they go through the maze were moving through the maze faster than those who were not rewarded at all.
Cognitive Behaviorism. Edward C. Tolman (1929, 1930, 1948)
58
What is Latent Learning?
Latent learning is learning that shows up later. This means you can know things without acting upon them. This also means that learning can happen without reinforcement and learning does not necessarily mean a change of behavior.
59
He believed that organisms can create "cognitive maps" or "representations" of their world. This theory moved away from pure behavior and allowed the start of our understanding of mental ability and cognition.
Tolman
60
refers to the process of modification of early cells and structures to achieve a specific structure that has a specific function
Differentiation
61
What are the 6 stages of child development ?
Newborn
Infant
Toddler
Pre schooler
School Age
Adolescent
62
This stage is from birth to one month. The height or length of a full-term newborn is around 20 inches and the weight is around 5 to 9 pounds. Tooth formation is already in progress at birth. Tooth buds appear at 11 weeks of fetal development. Permanent teeth are also developing already
Newborn
63
This stage is from one to 12 months (one year). At this stage, physical growth is very fast. Height increases by about 10 inches during the first 12 months. The child's weight doubles at four to seven months. The average weight gain being around 5 to 7 ounces per week. By 12 months, the child's birthweight has tripled. By six months, teething begins; by this time, the lower central incisors erupt, then the two central upper incisors appear. Sometimes, this sequence varies but many infants would have six teeth by age one.
Infant
64
This is from one to three years. Physical growth levels off into a more gradual and steady rate by this time, up until puberty. The increase in height also slows down to about 5 inches per year. For weight, toddlers gain 4.5 to 6.5 pounds per year. Bone development continues, and by two years of age, all 20 primary teeth have appeared.
Toddler
65
This is by three to six years of age. Although in many Philippine schools, there are such labels as "preschool," "junior kindergarten," and "senior kindergarten"; and now six-year-old children are already in grade one in the Philippines. For the purpose of our discussion in the context of "child development," we shall call this age group of children from three to six years
At this stage, the preschooler's physical growth is still gradual and steady. He/ she grows at a rate of 3 inches per year, a little slower than the previous stage. Just like toddlers, preschoolers also gain about 4.5 to 6.5 pounds per year.
Preschooler
66
This is used at the beginning of the school year, or when trying to turn around a disruptive classroom. Its primary focus is teaching students responsible behavior. At this level, the teacher gives explicit directions on how to behave and he/she checks if the students understand that. The teacher will narrate student behavior every minute. and, when appropriate, will use class-wide reinforcement programs. If any student disrupts the class, the teacher will stop the lesson and provide consequences to discipline the student.
Level 1 "Teacher-managed Level" (highly teacher-directed),
67
This is done when around 90% of the class have mastered the teacher's behavioral expectations for appropriate behavior. By this time, teachers can focus on both teaching behavior and academic achievement.
Level 2 is "Transitioning to Student Self-Management."
68
in other words, self-regulation. which is the ultimate goal of any behavior management program. At this level. students rarely need behavioral direction, and the teachers can now focus only on teaching academic content. At this level, the teacher will monitor and narrate student behavior. He/she may use a "timed incentive" to keep students motivated. like when the students finish their work on time, he/she may give extra time for "preferred time activity" at the end of the day.
Level 3 is "Student Self-Management Level,"
69
The is the increase in the number and size of cells of the child, resulting in an increase in body size and weight. Growth is all about quantitative changes or increase in size.
Child's growth
70
The ________, , is the gradual advancement of skills that the child needs to function. Therefore, development is about qualitative changes or functional abilities.
child's development
71
When we speak of ________, we refer to the increase in competence and ability of the child as he/she grows, so that he/she can function at a higher level.
maturation
72
It is a procedure in operant conditioning in which reinforcers guide behaviors closer and closer to successive approximations of the desired behavior
For an instance, when you give the rat a little food when it gets closer and closer to the bar then only when it touches the bar, until you only give it a reward when it does the behavior you are trying to shape it to do.
Shaping
73
It is when the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly not paired until the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response. Like when the rat does not receive food each time it presses the button. The behavior of pressing the button decreases.
Extinction
74
It is when reinforcement is given only part of the time. This results in a slower acquisition of a response or behavior. However, this is also less susceptible to extinction. For example, you can get a free cup of coffee for every 10 cups you buy, or you get a free planner after a certain number of coffee cups you buy over a period of several months.
Partial or intermittent reinforcement
75
He explains how to implement a behavior management cycle in the classroom. The following shows how to use strategies of the behavior management cycle.
Lee Canter (1976). Lee Canter
76
Gagne created a list of nine instructional events that would guide teaching.
What are them?
1. Gain attention (to ensure reception of stimuli)
2. Inform the learners of the objectives of the lesson (to establish appropriate expectancies)
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning (for retrieval from long-term memory)
4. Present the stimulus/material (to ensure selective perception)
5. Provide learning guidance (by suitable semantic encoding)
6. Elicit performance (responding)
7. Provide feedback (about the performance/reinforcement/formative)
8. Assess performance (additional response feedback occasions/summative)
9. Enhance retention and transfer/arranging practice (generalization/to aid future retrieval and transfer of learning)
77
He is known for the science of instruction. His book The Conditions of Learning presented mental conditions needed for effective learning. He created a process with nine steps of instruction that detailed each element needed for
Robert Gagne (1965)
78
It is a stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response, like giving food after the rat pushes a lever or giving the child a cookie when he/she says "please."
Positive reinforcement
79
It is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. This means taking away or removing an upsetting stimulus, like when you ride a car that has a loud sound as a reminder for wearing the seatbelt, the sound will only disappear if you wear the seatbelt.
Negative reinforcement
80
It is like when the traffic police gives you a speeding ticket, or when you are given a spanking or a scolding when you do something bad.
Positive punishment
81
It is like when the traffic police gives you a speeding ticket, or when you are given a spanking or a scolding when you do something bad.
Positive punishment
82
It is like when the traffic police removes or takes away your driver's license when you did some traffic violation, when an adult takes away your favorite toy, when you go to sleep without dinner, or when your privilege to go out and play is removed because you broke some rule or did something bad.
Negative punishment
83
It is an innately reinforcing stimulus; it occurs naturally. like salivation in the sight of food. This does not have to be learned. It is something that would satisfy a biological need.
primary reinforcer
84
It is a relatively short arrangement of introductory material presented to the learner before the lesson. It relies on relevant price knowledge. There should be a bridging of the gap between what the learner knows and what he/she needs to know before he/she can successfully learn the task at hand
advanced organizer
85
There are three phases in using the advanced organizer:
Phase 1: Presentation of the advanced organizer. This phase has three steps:
Phase 2: Presentation of the learning task. In this phase, the present learning task is presented in a systematic order, while discussing each aspect one by one, with very interactive class discussion between the teacher and the students.
Phase 3: Strengthening of cognitive organization. This phase has four steps:
86
Phase 1: Presentation of the advanced organizer. This phase has three steps:
Step 1. Clarify the aims of the lesson.
Step 2. Present the advanced organizer.
Step 3. Prompt awareness of relevant knowledge and experience
87
Phase 3: Strengthening of cognitive organization. This phase has four steps:
Step 1. Compare and contrast key points.
Step 2. Accurate reception
Step 3. Elicit critical approach.
Step 4. Clarify.
88
He is known for the science of instruction. His book The Conditions of Learning presented mental conditions needed for effective learning. He created a process with nine steps of instruction
Robert Gagne (1965)
89
He is known for the science of instruction. His book The Conditions of Learning presented mental conditions needed for effective learning. He created a process with nine steps of instruction
Robert Gagne (1965)
90
This type of conditioning involves voluntary behavior
Operant Conditioning.
91
He proposed that children "operate" in their environment, seek out rewards, and avoid punishment. He presented another kind of associative learning which is called operant conditioning. This type of associative learning is about associating our own behavior with consequences. When you do something, something happens. There is a consequence. This is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcement (reward) or decreases if followed by a punishment.
B. F. Skinner (1948)
92
It is called ___________, when a subject associates or links certain stimuli, events, or behaviors together in the process of conditioning. This explains how we are conditioned by our environment. This was later known as "classical conditioning," which is a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events to happen. This is an adaptive form of learning that helps humans and animals survive. This happens when the animal changes its behavior to adapt to its environment. In this case, the sound of a bell means food, and food means survival.
associative learning
93
He conditioned a child (Little Albert) to fear a white rat. This was done by pairing the rat with a loud scary noise. This was also generalized to include other furry animals and objects
John B. Watson (1920).
94
The _______-one's organs, physiology, and genetics-explain the role of genes (DNA) and hormones in the health care of the individual. These include a person's physical health, genetic vulnerabilities, disability, and IQ, which can be affected not just by being in a good environment where there is an abundance of books that the parents read to the child, but also by nutrition that affects the
development of the brain.
biological forces
95
The __________ are all about cognition, emotion, and motivation. These include a person's coping skills, social skills, self-esteem, how we think, and the way we develop our ideas
psychological forces
96
The _______ that affect development are a person's family, community, and society, including school, peers, and work environment among others.
All these things shape a person as a human being
social forces
97
This is all about the continuous influence of time on all other subsystems and their interactions. This is the defining characteristic of development. Time influences child development in terms of physical, cognitive, and personality characteristics. Time also influences developmental challenges and opportunities that affect children.
chronosystem
98
In the olden days, there was a debate on what influences or shapes child development, nature (our genetic makeup) or nurture (how we were raised).and now we know that both nature and nurture had an effect in child development
Biopsychosocial Model by George L. Engel and Jon Romano (1977)
99
Before behaviorism, people studied about how people think, but relied upon looking into the unconsciousness of people in a highly subjective way by interpreting their thoughts and dreams (like Freud and Jung). Behaviorism arose as a counter movement to these approaches
Behaviorism (1897-1902).
100
It deals with measurable, observable behavior.
Behaviorism
101
They did not test for thinking because it was not possible to measure those things at that time. For them, control of behavior is in the environment (external), and learning (conditioning) occurs when there is a change of behavior.
Behaviorists
102
It assumes that the learner is essentially passive and, like a blank slate, simply responds to environmental stimuli.
1.1 Classical Conditioning. This involves association or pairing of stimuli and involuntary behavior.
Behaviorism
103
The work of ______ contributed to the behaviorist school of thought, which is an empirically rigorous science focused on observable behaviors and NOT on unobservable internal mental processes like the work of S. Freud. Pavlov was conducting a research about the digestive system, using dogs as his subjects.
Ivan Pavlov (1897).
104
Learning is defined as the process of acquiring, via experience, new and enduring information or behaviors. This can be done through association, observation, or thinking. This allows us to adapt to our environment and to survive.
Ivan Pavlov (1897)
105
The first system is the innermost . It consists of activities and interactions of the child with his/her immediate surroundings or with the closest to the child, and one in which he/she has direct contact with-parents and family at home, teachers and peers at school
microsystem
106
activities and interactions here depend on the characteristics of the child and the characteristics of the adults (parents, teachers, and others) around him/her. In other words, your reactions among the people in the microsystem affect how they treat you. This is the most influential system of this theory.
Microsystem
107
The second system is the ________. It includes connections or interactions between all the microsystems related to the child. If for example, the parents are involved in school and exchange experiences and information with the school, the development of the child in both settings can benefit. Lessons from school can be carried over in the home, improving parent-child interaction, and knowing what happens at home can improve teacher-child interaction
mesosystem
108
The ___________ also includes other features of the people in a child's immediate surroundings like their socioeconomic status. The interactions in this system have an indirect impact on the child. If the elements of his/her microsystem are working together, there is a positive influence on the child. If the different microsystems are working against each other, there is a negative influence on the child.
Mesosytem
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The third system is the _______. This includes the social settings that do not
contain the child but still affect his/her experiences in his/her immediate settings. For examples, whether or not the kind of workplace a parent is in facilitates a special leave if one of the children gets sick; or the kind of social network a parent has-whether or not the parent has relatives or friends who give support to the parent, and the like.
exosystem
110
The fourth system is the _________. This includes the cultural environment
in which a person lives in and all the other systems that affect the child. It includes cultural values, customs, traditions, laws, resources, or the economy and the political system in a child's country.
macrosystem
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He believed that a child is affected by everything in his/ her environment. This includes the varied systems of the environment and the interrelationships among the systems that shape a child's development. The bioecological theory aims to highlight multiple layers of influence on the child. It emphasizes both general age trends and individual development. It believes that heredity and the environment act together to influence child development. In other words, it emphasizes both nature and nurture. This applies to any of the developmental domains
The Bioecological Theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1977)
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is called __________ because it describes how child development is influenced by a child's biology, which interacts with influences from his/her surroundings (ecology). In this theory, the child is embedded within a complex series of interacting layers that influence or affect development. This model has five subsystems.
bioecological theory
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What are the 5 sub systems of Bioecological theory?
Individual
Microsystem
Mesosytem
Ecosystem
Macrosystem
114
Just like other cognitivists, he believes that new learning relies on what the learner already knows. He agrees with Bruner in having learning materials that are meaningful to the learner, and that learning should not just be mechanical. Ausubel believes that information is not useful to learners if they cannot relate what they are learning to wider contexts
David Ausubel (1918)
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Step 1 _______ This happens during hands-on experiences is best when this is done with real-world applications. For example, when learning division, to divide 4 by 2. two students learn how to cut a cake into four slices each can eat one now and bring home one
Enactive Representation.
116
Step 2 _______. We now link the memories of the lesson experienc to iconic pictures. Here, students are asked to draw a cake that was cut into four pieces then divided among two students.
Iconic Representation
117
Step 3 _______. We now use the images we internalized earlier and turn them into abstract language such as mathematical symbols. This lam phase is also called language-based because we are actually just learning the appropriate symbols to express our thoughts. The actual math knowledge was acquired much earlier through the hands-on experiences.
Bruner advocated the use of a spiral curriculum. This has continuous repetition of the same basic ideas, and students revisit the same topic at regular intervals. But the complexity of the topic increases with each revisit the new learning has a relationship with the previous learning.
Symbolic Representation
118
Many times, children who grow up in deprived environments and into families with low socioeconomic status (SES) do not get the opportunity that children in well-off families get, like nutrition, sanitation, medical and health services, or schooling. When it comes to language development. studies show that among families with low SES, there are variations in language acquisition, depending on how much language is used toward the child.
Socioeconomic status.
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Like Piaget, _______ says children have an innate capacity to learn, and that cognitive abilities develop through active interaction. However, Bruner considers that social factors have a greater influence on cognitive development, more than merely a biological maturation (Piaget), especially with the use of language. Bruner's stages present a flexible description of the gradual development of cognitive skills and the use of integrative and intertwined cognitive techniques.
Jerome Bruner (1915-2016)
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He says that what is important is to get students to process information in a way that makes it meaningful to them. If students can learn principles, then even if they cannot remember particular details, the guiding principles will lead them to be able to solve a problem or formulate an answer.
Jerome Burner (1925-2016)
121
Bruner introduced a three-step process where a child will learn best. This is learning from concrete to abstract. First is hands-on action, then learning with
images, and finally, students transform what they have learned into language.
Throughout the experience, previously learned topics are constantly reviewed,
while teachers provide carefully structured guidance along the way. It is said that it
is best to study fewer concepts in greater detail, than trying to cover so many topics
in a hurried fashion.
Enactive learning
Iconic learning
Symbolic learning
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. When our _____ function well, we would have normal growth and development. However, when there are imbalances, when there are either too much hormones or too little hormones in the hormone-secreting glands, there could be growth defects, behavior problems, and any of the following diseases: Addison's disease is associated with low blood pressure, low cognitive ability, anemia, and feeling physically depleted
Hormones
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. Breast milk is best for infants and leads to higher intelligence and improved health. A balanced diet without forgetting about fruits and vegetables would be ideal for growing children. Malnutrition (wrong nutrition) is usually associated with undernutrition as a result of deprivation of food, but the term also applies to overnutrition due to overeating
Nutrition
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It is a condition that develops when the body is deprived of much needed vitamins and minerals, causes stunted growth, delays puberty, and undermines brain development, but only to a limited extent. This can cause deficiency diseases that affect growth and development. You may search about lack of vitamins A, B, C, D, E, and so on, affecting eyesight, skin, and bone development among others. A deficiency of minerals also affects physical growth and development. For instance, a lack of calcium can be associated with soft bones, a weakened immune system, or early tooth decay in children
Undernutrition
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in our diet can cause the enlargement of the thyroid gland, a condition known as goiter and other thyroid problems. In children, this could cause mental retardation. Endemic cretinism is found in mountainous areas or other isolated areas where a pregnant woman can be severely iodine deficient because she has no access to seafoods or to iodized salt.
Severe iodine deficiency
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What are the Factors That Affect Physical Growth and Development?
Nutrition
Environment
Exercise
Socio economic factors
Familial influence
Culture
Health
Gender
Geographic influences
Sex
Education
Learning motivation
Genetics
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. This is the passing on of characteristics genetically from one generation to the next, or from parents to children. Genetics plays a key role in physical development. Some children may be taller than children their age, while others can be shorter, depending on the height of the parents. Some regions of a country may have kids taller or heavier than children from other regions of the country. Heredity can play a big role in differences in height, weight, aptitude, intelligence, and even predisposition to disease.
Heredity
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The environment in which a child is raised can affect physical growth and development. The clean, healthy, and safe physical surroundings promote normal physical development. On the other hand, disease, toxic stress, accidents, pandemics, exposure to alcohol, tobacco, and toxins in the environment all affect a child's physical development negatively. Children who grew up exposed to air pollution may develop chronic lung disease, pneumonia, or asthma.
Environment.
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In this theory, he emphasized that children develop individually, at their own pace, but that every child follows the same sequence. He said there were two major forces that influenced development: environment and genetics. Genetics affects the rate of development, and the environment teaches children how to behave in a proper manner.
Maturation Theory by Arnold Gesell (1925)
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. At this stage, the child starts to assert independence at home and in school. Emotional growth continues. Both parents and teachers ideally instill good moral values, especially at this age. The child should learn to make good choices. Thus, while he/she should be protected from adverse elements in the environment, he/she should also learn to face the consequences of his/her actions.
School age
131
. Adolescents become better at moving their bodies as they mature. Boys continue to improve in gross motor skills even unto their early twenties. They rapidly gain physical speed, strength in jumping and throwing, and endurance. On the other hand, girls make modest gains in gross and fine motor skills until around the age of 14. Beyond this, not much progress is seen unless they are specifically trained for a sport or a hobby that requires these skills.
Adolescent
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Adaptation Process in Learning Something New
Assimilation
Equilibration
New Situation
Disequilibrium
Accommodation
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It is the process of fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. This is when you are faced with new information, you try to make sense of it by referring to the information you already have (learned previously). For example, when a toddler sees an elderly man who is bald at the top but with hair on the sides around the ears, he might say "clown"! A child who happens to see a Chihuahua might say "puppy" even if the said dog is already 7 years old simply because of its size. Another child might see a chubby man with luscious white beard and the child might say "Santa Claus." Another child may call a large dog a horse.
Assimilation
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It is the process of revising our existing schemas, perceptions, and understanding in order to incorporate new information. This happens when our existing schema does not work and needs to be changed in order to deal with a new situation or a new object. For example, a schema for bird (having feathers and wings, and flies) and seeing an airplane (which also has wings and flies but no feathers), or when a bald man looks like a clown because of his hair, but he does not wear a funny costume. Accommodation can be used to remove overgeneralization.
Accommodation
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It is a state when a child's existing schemas can explain what it can perceive around it. It is a state of mental (cognitive) balance. Since we find it difficult to live with contradictions and inconsistencies in knowledge structures,
Equilibration
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This are building blocks of knowledge that enable us to form a mental representation of the world-a way of organizing what we know. These are "units" of knowledge, each relating to an aspect like objects, actions, or abstract concepts. They are linked mental representations of our knowledge. They are similar to having index cards of knowledge neatly filed in your thoughts, informing us how to react at certain situations. We store these mental representations (schemas) and retrieve and apply them when we need them.
Schemas
137
It is important in cognitive development. As the child gets older, his/ her schemas become more numerous and more elaborate.
Schemas
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It is a processes are adjustments people make to live in this world. These adaptation processes allow the learner to transition from one stage to another. These are assimilation, equilibration, and accommodation.
Adaptation
139
the brain is part of the ________ The nervous system has two main parts: the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (nerves that branch out from the spinal cord). The part of the brain that has an important role in motor control is the cerebellum ("little brain"). If there is any dysfunction in the cerebellum, signs will be seen in motor development
nervous system.
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Cognitive stages of Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
Concrete operational stage
Formal operational stage
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It is about how a person's language or communication skills develop from crying to laughing, to babbling, and then to talking. This involves one's ability to comprehend, use, and manipulate language
Language development or communicative domain
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What are the 4 aspect of language?
Phonology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
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The _______ domain includes growth of the body size and proportions, appearance, brain development, sensory capacities (taste, touch, sight, smell, hearing, and proprioception, which is bodily awareness of your orientation in space), motor skills, and overall physical health. The physical domain is about the measurable, visible changes in the body of a child from birth to old age
physical
144
The _______ development refers to the increasing amount of control that a child has over his/her body. It includes the different levels of skills that he/she can master. This domain also involves gross motor skills (major movements of the body involving large muscles) and fine motor skills (movement of fingers and hands).
Motor
145
It refers to the ability of a child to do age-appropriate life skills. It may refer to how a child adapts to the environment and is able to perform things independently. Although others may consider these as motor skills, some psychologists define them as self-care skills. These might include drinking from a bottle or cup, feeding, toileting, dressing, or avoiding common dangers. Children, however, may also develop other adaptive behaviors that may encompass not just the physical domain, but also the cognitive and socioemotional domains like self- sufficiency, personal responsibility, and social skills.
Adaptive development
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This domain or development is about the changes and progression in the thought processes-thinking abilities of a person from infancy up to old age. The mental processes include learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, imagination, academic knowledge, everyday knowledge, and understanding what is happening around you
Cognitive domain
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There are differences in opinion regarding the critical domains of development. Some psychologists classify them as follows:
(1) physical development, (2) motor development, (3) cognitive development, (4) social development, and (5) emotional development
148
Other psychologists say that the five critical domains are:
(1) social, (2) emotional, (3) physical, (4) cognitive, and (5) language/communication
149
another classification is listed as follows:
(1) physical, (2) cognitive, (3) communicative, (4) socioemotional, and (5) adaptive
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During the _____ (1300s-1600s), there was a rebirth of learning and culture in society. People began to think about their place in the world. They saw memselves as individuals and began to see their children as individuals with rights.
Renaissance
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He had his theory of tabula rasa (blank slate), arguing that our brains are empty at birth and are waiting to be filled with experiences, and that we are products of our social environment. When parents and teachers realized that they could write on that "blank slate," they started to control children's experiences. Families can even shape the personality of the children. This was the first time the "childhood" was seen as a separate developmental stage. Parents, thus, started showing affection to their children.
John Locke
