The conversion of Norway Flashcards
(84 cards)
1
Q
Written sources for the conversion of Norway
A
- Agrip
- Heimskringla
- ASC
- Oddar Snorrason
- Theodoricus Monarchus
- Adam of Bremen
2
Q
Archaeological sources/locations for the conversion of Norway
A
- Nitharos
- Veøy
- The Kuli Stone
- The Dynna stone
- Mære
- Nomeland
- Oseberg
3
Q
The 7 scholars to cite on the conversion of Norway
A
- Wood
- Hagland
- Lund
- Berend
- Nordleide
- Birkeli
- Solli
4
Q
Topics for the conversion of Norway
A
- Sources (written and archaeological)
- Scholars
- English influence
- The role of Olaf Tryggvason and Olaf Haraldsson
- Tactics of conversion in Norway
- H.B.’s small/ non-existent role- and why?
- How the weakness of the Norwegian monarchy affected the conversion + role of farmers
5
Q
Olaf tryggvason reign
A
994/5- 1000
6
Q
olaf haraldsson reign
A
1015-30
7
Q
The three missionary kings of Norway
A
- Hakon the good
- Olaf Tryggvason
- Olaf Haraldsson
8
Q
What does the ASC say about Olaf Tryggavson’s conversion?
A
- It says that Æthelred stood sponsor as godfather to Tryggavson’s baptism
- He also accepted gifts and took missionaries and minters back with him to Norway
9
Q
What does Wood point out?
A
- Wood points out that there is a pattern seen in written evidence of the lower classes being the part of Scandinvian society which is generally opposed to conversion, as opposed to the aristocracy.
10
Q
What seems to be key factor’s in Olaf Tryggvason’s conversion tactics?
A
- Force and travel; these can be said to be the defining characteristics of his conversion efforts.
Always depicted as being accompanied by a large company of men
11
Q
An issue with the written sources on Olaf Tryggvason
A
All contemporary sources in some way reflect the fact that Olaf Haraldsson was made a saint and a lot of depictions of him are reflective of that; typology
12
Q
Why do Icelandic sources often present Tryggvason positively?
A
- Because they adopted him as their patron saint
13
Q
Why did the Icelander’s sancitfy Tryggvason?
A
- The Icelander’s were attracted to the idea of having their own saint but promoting the cult of Haraldsson sent the wrong political message
- Instead of Olaf Haraldsson, the Icelander’s turned to Tryggvason ‘the missionary king’ who had sent missionaries to Iceland
- A lot of typological references to him; like Oddar Snorrason’s comparison to John the Baptist with Tryggvason converting Haraldsson
14
Q
What does Adam of Bremen say about Tryggvason?
A
- He for one does not explicitly say he was Christian, but quite likely didn’t have much to go on for Norway generally? As most of his informants were Danes/ enemies of Norwegians
- And neither of them were friends to H.B.
15
Q
Year Tryggvason baptised by Æthelred?
A
994
16
Q
Year of Oseberg burial
A
c. 834
17
Q
Reign of Hakon the Good
A
934- 961
18
Q
Reign of Earl Hakon of Lade
A
970- 995
19
Q
When did Trggvason turn up in England?
A
991
20
Q
What happens in 1031?
A
Olaf Haraldsson is declared a saint when they opened his grave to find that his body had no signs of decomposition
21
Q
What can coin distribution in Norway tell us?
A
- The distubution tells us about the power of the king who minted them and the extent of their geographical control
22
Q
A fundamental issue with the scandinavian histories of Norway as sources?
A
They have a limited theme.
They are all cocncerned with the top layers of society, written by men and often considered propaganda for specific people or opinions
23
Q
What does Snorri say about the Æsir in Ynglinga Saga and what does this suggest about Norwegian kingship?
A
- He says that Harald Fairhair’s genealogy began with the Æsir and the Vanir- but Snorri says these were groups of humans, not gods.
- The grafting of the mythological material suggests that in Norwegian culture, the claim of being descended from the gods was a way to claim legitimacy?
24
Q
How does Heimskringla say that Olaf Tryggvason was converted?
A
- Heimskringla says he met a hermit in the Scilly Isles who convinced Olaf he had the true faith through making correct predictions. Olaf converts and is baptised, and stays there a while to learn about his new faith and took learned men with him when he left
- The hermit is a useful literary device, as the King is automatically above them in status. This is one instance of a well-known theme, which probably goes back to the dialogues of St Gregory.
25
What the opposing sources say on Tryggvason's conversion:
- ASC- Baptised by Æthelred
| - Heimsrkingla- Converted by a hermit in the Scilly Isles
26
What does Theodoricus monarchus say about wider foreign influence?
- Says that Tryggvason had a priest with him from Flanders
| - - this highlights that Denmark and England were not the only foriegn powers with influence
27
What does Theodoricus Monarchus not mention at all?
- Does not mention Hakon's attempt to Christianise norway- prefering instead to place a greater emphasis on the actions of Tryggvason and Haraldsson. But this preferene could come from a typological perspective.
28
Who founded Nitharos?
Tryggvason
29
Trggvason's conversion of the Orkney's?
Heimsrkingla says that Olaf forces the earl and the people of Orkney to accept baptism 'or else suffer death at once'
30
What does Birkeli argue about the chronology of the Norwegian conversion?
- That we can claim most of the 10th century as a missionary period, with a more or less national church being organised in the eleventh century
31
Interesting thing that William of Malmsbury says and how this corresponds to other evidence?
William of Malmesbury’s De Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecclesiae contains a necrology of a number of monks who became bishops, one of whom is named “Sigefridus nowegensis’.
Birkelli believesthis Sigfrid is the Bishop who came to Norway during the reign of King Haakon Adelsteinsfostre, which would correspond with what the saga says, and also Adam of Bremen, who admitted that even before King Olav Tryggvason there were Bishops and missionaries from England in Norway.”
32
What does Adam of bremen admit about English influence before trygg.?
Adam of Bremen, who admitted that even before King Olav Tryggvason there were Bishops and missionaries from England in Norway.”
33
What does Lunden highlight as another major change experienced by Norway at this time?
Population of Norway probably trebled between 900-1300; another massive societal change; the land to labour ratio reduced.
34
Burial sites in Norway
- Oseberg
- Nomeland
- Adger
35
Churches and/ or early Christian centres in Norway?
- Veoy
- Nitharos
- St Clemens (Oslo)
36
Cult sites/ buildings in Norway
- Maere
37
- Pagan runestones in Norway
- Stangeland
- Skadeberg
- Skafså
38
Christian rune stones in Norway
- The kuli stone
| - Dynna stone
39
How do Heimskringla and archaeological evidence match up?
Heimskringla gives accounts of Tryggvason going into temples and pulling down statues.
- There is some archaeology of this – he is said to have done this in Mære and archaeology has found evidence of post holes with gold foil goldgubbar in but also looked like, whatever it was, had been burnt—so looks like the temple was destroyed and church built over it. Although Snorri doesn’t say anything of burning
40
Where do we see a local power site being replaced with a larger royal site in Norway?
Lade to Nitharos
| But with local relgions we see sites of local power replaced by a church-- i.e. Maere
41
Discuss the Dynna rune stone
This a response to Christianity. It is in the usual shape of a Norwegian rune stone (typically long and thin) but also decorated with the magi coming to give presents to the infant Christ put up by a woman for her daughter- so it is interesting to see how gender specific this all is, with a mother memorialising her child as of course Christ grows up to die at a young age himself. Magi is about mothers and children, and it is interesting that the father of the daughter is here never mentioned.
42
What does Adam of Bremen say about Harald Hardruler?
- Criticises him very strongly for not accepting the authroity of Hamburg-Bremen, saying that he recognises no authority in Norway except his own and he gets his bishops consecrated abroad, namely in England and France
43
What does Heimskringla say on St Olaf?
He sends men to Iceland to “take out the laws such parts as seemed to him most at variance with Christianity”. He then himself travels around Norway, proclaiming Christian laws and abolishing evil customs “and heathen rites among the people”.
- Emphasises the patchy nature of Christianity and knowledge of such, across the country. For example, in Vik the Christian ways were well known to them there.
44
What does Heimskringla say Olaf Tryggvason did when he came into power?
- He gathered all his earls and says they have to spread the gospel, or he’ll kill them, and that if they did so this would help to increase their power. Says that those earls who converted quickly “were also the most powerful of those who were present at the time”.
- He killed or drove out of the country those who would not convert.
45
What Heimskringla say of tryggvason's incident at the Gulathing assembly?
- He spoke to farmers ar the Gulathing assembly and they say they'd only convert if he accepted a marriage proposal for his sister, as it would strengthen the farmer's positon-- no theology
46
Indication of Tryggvason's dedication to conversion?
Snorri says that Olaf would convert Norway or die trying
47
Summary of Norwegian rune stones
There is a group of more than 60 standing rune stones from the 10th-11th centuries. The inscriptions seem religiously neutral, but nevertheless testify to a change in burial custom. Many of these also have crosses on them.
48
Perhaps the ultimate issue in studying norwegian conversion
the sources aren’t particularly clear as to what actually happened
49
Summary of H.B's role in Norway?
They have a papal mandate that all of Scandinavia was supposed to be under their control, but in fact they did not send any missionaries to Norway and can’t make any claim to have converted the Norwegian kings. Strictly speaking, Norway was a part of its collective province but it had no luck installing bishops there.
50
Nomeland burial
A rich pagan burial, coin-dated to after 1065- 1080
| - Indicates that local pagan worship is still active, even after the death of Harald Hardruler.
51
Mære
In the early Viking Age, according to the Sagas Mære was one of the most important religious ceremonial places, with sacrifices to the Norse gods.
- Under the medieval church at Mære, traces of preceding heathen hof were found in archaeological investigations during the 1960s, the only case in Norway so far of a pre-Christian building being found to have existed on the site of a church
- These remains of a pagan temple which is very unusual. It also seems to have been burned down, and then a Christian church built nearby it. Could see this as part of the conversion under Harald Hardruler?
- Cult ended by c. 1050
52
The progression of Nitharos' importance
Nidaros remained the centre of Norway's spiritual life until the Protestant Reformation. The archdiocese of Nidaros was separated from Lund in Scania by the papal legate Nicholas Breakspeare in 1152
-- By 1153 Nidaros was an independent bishopric with sees in Scotland, Greenland, Faroes and IOM
53
The founding of Nitharos
Olaf Tryggvason founded Nidaros in 997 and constructed a palace and church there. It seems to have been intended as a port of faith and was deliberately placed in the pagan heartlands of Trøndelag.
- An instance of royal power interacting with religion
54
The icelanders and Nitharos?
Snorri tells how Icelanders such as Kjartan came to Nidaros in 999 and were eventually forcibly baptised by Tryggvason
55
Where do most of Haraldsson's missionaries seem to have been from?
- Northumbria area and york (according to birkelli)
56
Discuss Norwegian crosses
States that in the Norwegian cross material, “there are types which indisputably connect them with the British Isles”. An obvious Celtic style. One of them can be dated to c. 1000AD. A sign of Christian influence from the British Isles in western Norway at this point already.
with the introduction of Christianity into the country.”
-- The crosses in the British Isles are the end result of a century-long cultural and Christian tradition, while the crosses in Norway represent the beginning of a Christian cultural tradition
57
Most interesting Norwegian rune stone
the Kuli-stone from Møre. Has the word ‘kristintumr’
| on it, which “is no doubt a loan-word from the Anglo-Saxon
58
Who was Thrangbrand
- Sent to Norway by H.B. but Tryggvason sent him to Norway-- evidence of rejection of Hamburg Bremen and them not being welcome in Norway?
59
What does Heimskringla's saga of Hakon the Good say on Hakon's attempt at conversion?
- Says that at the Frostathing, Hakon spoke to the farmers to persuade them to be baptised
- The farmers dont respond with theological concerns but rather how they should continue to live if they have to stop farming every 7th day to observe the sabbeth, and highlight a class division in that Hakon does not have to worry about that
- The farmers say they'll continue to obey him if he does not force the religion on them, and they want him to sacrifice to confirm this
60
How does Heimskringla depict Olaf Haraldsson's conversion tactics?
- Also very violent- In the uppland districts for example he took the most prominent men and 'compelled' them to become Christian "or else suffer death or flee abroad if they were able' and had them surrender their sons for good faith.
61
Solli's argument on British influence
- - On the changing relationship between Norway and the British Isles
- Solli argues that there had been contact between Norway and Britain well before the first record of 793 and there was a long period of North sea interaction. Then argues that Christianity applied cultural stress to Norway which made them reassert their own identity
62
Hagland's argument on eastern influence
-- On the influence of Byzantium and the east
- Hagland argues that too little attention has been paid to the role/ influence of eastern europe and Byzantium in the christianisation of norway, siting some textual references as evidence; such as Islendingabok mentions '3 armenian bishops'. But does not provide archaeological evidence which is somewhat unconvincing in scope
63
Relgious role of Earl Hakon of Lade
- Earl hakon was forcibly baptised in Germany after fighting against the Germans and loosing.
- He goes back to Norway but falls out with harald Bluetooth as he opposed the idea of sending Christian missionaries to Norway
- He has a cultic role which he benefits from, until it gets him killed
64
Rule of earl hakon of lade
970 - 995
65
What does Hakon the Good's failure say about the relationship between power and religion?
Failure of Hakon the good's attempt to convert Norway was a result of his own lack of power and probably also a result of Earl Sigurd of Lade's realisation that if he supported the king in this, he would likely lose his own power in Trondelag
66
Where was Olaf haraldsson converted?
Rouen
67
Discuss Harald Hardruler and christianisation and power
- Hardruler was a powerful christian ruler who controlled the Norwegian church and continued to align Norway's relgious sphere with France and England, earning him admonitions from H.B. which he spurns
68
When did olaf the quiet reign?
1066- 1093
69
How does Olaf the Quiet use religion?
- Olaf the quiet is a king who uses his royal power to strengthen the church, rather than using the church to strengthen royal power (although he does put the image of christ on his coins)
- He fixes doiceses for Bergen, Nitharos and Oslo
70
Another factor to consider...
Geography
71
Irish influence
At the beginning of the Viking Age Norwegian Vikings go to Ireland and plunder churches, which has been seen as exposure to Christianity. Not conversion, but significant that many got their first glimpse of Christianity on Irish shores. On the island of Veøy, the churchyard is rounded, which is a characteristic of Gaelic buildings, so probably Irish or Celtic British.
72
What are the 3 key points of Nordleide's 2012 article
1) Minimum degrees of acculturation can be seen in rituals- Norse paganism was not influenced by Christianity
2) Females were not leading agents in the Christianisation process
3) Non-Christian cult ended upruptly, although at different times in different places
73
When do non-Christian graves in Norway generally peter out?
- Its hard to find non-Christian graves dated to after 1050 (although Nomeland and Adger would appear to be an exception)
74
What does Nordleide argue about how Christianity was established?
- It was not established along the west cost then inland, or along the south coast before the north. bur rather established with the help of kings in strategic places; stepping stones along the landscape. Known as 'ports of faith'
75
what three things does Nordleide argue are intrincially linked?
- the rise of urbanisation
- the rise of the monarchy
- the rise of the norwegian church
76
Latest non-Christian grave in Norway and what it tells us
- Adger, which is in an area distinguished by its lack of towns and royal presence-- Nordleide argues this is a reflection of local elites who resisted christianity in order to continue to promote their own power base
77
What does Berend argue?
- That the real turning point for the christianisation of Scandinavia was the ruler's conversion
78
What does the Kuli runestone say?
Has Old Norse description: "Tore and Hallvard erected this stone ... (for) twelve winters/years Christianity had been in Norway".
79
date of the kuli runestone?
The Kuli stone dated to 1034 since it was originally found adjacent to a Viking Age boardwalk dated dendrochronologically to that year, on the assumption that the two were contemporaneous. Others have suggested that the inscription refers to the conquest of Norway in 995 by King Olaf Tryggvason and his forced conversions.
80
Date of Veoy?
Radiocarbon dating indicates that these burials are from the mid-late 10th century, making this the earliest known Christian burial ground in Norway, and corresponding with accounts of an early failed attempt at a conversion to Christianity by Hakon Athelstein's fóstri in western Norway at about this time.
81
What does not fit with Nordleide's argument on 'ports ot faith' and how does she explain it?
- Veoy
- Argues it was started by some religious community, perhaps from the B.I.
-- why though?
82
Olaf Haraldsson's english bishops....
Grimkell and Bernhard, also had Rodolf who was Norman
83
Later influence of cistercian abbots
Cisterican abbots from Kirkstead in Yorkshire set up daughter foundations in Lysekloster and Hovedøya in the 1140s and used their own English craftsmen.
84
Reign of Harald Hardruler
1046- 1066
