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Pathophysiology 1 > The Endocrine System > Flashcards

The Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

Where can organs of endocrine system mainly be found?

A 
Neck 
Head 
Thoracic cavity 
Abdomen 
Pelvic cavity
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2
Q

What two things can secrete hormones.

A

Organs

Glands

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3
Q

Describe exocrine glands and examples

A

Exocrine glands have a duct and secrete products directly onto a surface or within a cavity through it

Examples: Salivary glands secrete saliva into mouth
Sweat glands secrete sweat onto skin surface

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4
Q

Describe endocrine glands and examples.

A

Endocrine glands are ductless. They secrete their hormone into extra cellular fluid which diffuses into blood. It is then carried through blood to bind to a specific receptor on target cell or organ. This triggers a reaction.

Eg. Pituitary, adrenal and thyroid gland

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5
Q

What organs can produce hormones

A

Pancreas
Liver
Heart

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6
Q

Do hormones excite or inhibit

A

They excite or inhibit activity of other organs or tissues

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7
Q

What hormones are produced by stomach?

A

Gastrin

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8
Q

Hormones produced by small intestine:

A

Peptides
Secretin
Cholecystokinin

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9
Q

Hormones produced by kidney

A

Erythropoietin
Renin
1,25- DHCC

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10
Q

5 Main functions of the endocrine system

A

Balances sodium and water for blood volume
Balances calcium and phosphate levels to preserve extra cellular fluid for cell survival
Balances energy and controls macronutrients - proteins, carbohydrates and lipids and how they’re used and stored
Responses to stress
Reproduction, growth and development and sexual development

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11
Q

What are categories of hormones

A

Non steroidal

Steroidal

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12
Q

What do non steroidal hormones do?

A

They are one amino acid or short chain of amino acids. They bind to specific receptors on cell membrane, by lock and key.

Many chemical reactions happen once it has bind to activate molecules in the cell

These reactions are secondary messengers

Secondary messengers cause further reactions, secrete more hormones or secrete a different hormone

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13
Q

What do steroidal hormones do?

A

Small, lipid soluble chemicals. Pass through cell membrane and easily through the cytoplasm.

They can enter nucleus of cell to bind to a receptor within the nucleus

Hormone-receptor complex formed

Complex causes DNA to do different things - eg, speed or slow cell processes, enable transport into cell or cell to secrete something else

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14
Q

Which type of hormone is quicker response?

A

Non steroidal hormones act quicker than steroidal

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15
Q

What are non steroidal hormones soluble in?

A

Soluble in water and insoluble in lipids

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16
Q

What are the two types of non steroidal hormones?

A

Peptide or protein hormones

Amino - acid derived hormones

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17
Q

Describe peptide or protein hormones

A

Most of non steroidal are this type

Vary in size (3-200 amino acids long)

They are synthesised as pre-prohormones first then undergo transformation to functioning hormone

Stored in secretory glands and exocytose from the cell

Examples: Insulin, glucagon and adrenocorticotropic hormones

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18
Q

Amino acid derived

A

These proteins are synthesised from another amino acid

Commonly end in ‘ine’

Eg, adrenaline , noradrenaline and dopamine

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19
Q

Steroidal hormones

A

Lipid soluble molecules

Derived from cholesterol and produced in adrenal cortex, gonads and placenta in women

Require binding proteins in the blood

Examples- Testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone

20
Q

5 Major pathways for hormones

A

PASEN

Paracrine- Cell produces and secretes a hormone and the hormone acts directly on nearby cell, eg, histamine and bradykinin

Autocrine- Cell produces and secretes hormone then the hormone binds to receptors on the cell membrane of the cell it came from, so these cells are secretory and receptive cells!

Synaptic pathway- Hormones produced in neurone, secreted and travels along axon to a synapse, where they are released and taken up by nearby neurone to exert effect.

Endocrine/ telocrine - hormone produced and secreted from cell, travels through blood and binds to distant cells at receptors

Neuroendocrine- Hormone produced in neurone, secreted, travels along axon to synapse, released and taken up into blood vessels to travel to cells with specific receptors

21
Q

Where are hypothalamus and pituitary gland?

A

Near each other at base of brain

22
Q

How do hypothalamus and pituitary gland interact?

A

Hypothalamus has neurones that produce inhibiting and releasing hormones to act on pituitary gland

23
Q

Give four common releasing hormones from hypothalamus

A

GHRH- Growth hormones releasing hormone
TRH- Thyrotropin releasing hormone
CRH- Corticotropin RH
GnRH- gonadotropin RH

24
Q

What does GHRH do?

A

Growth hormone RH released from hypothalamus and stimulates pituitary gland to produce growth hormone

25
Q

What does TRH do?

A

Thyrotropin RH released from hypothalamus and stimulates pituitary gland to produce thyroid stimulating hormone

26
Q

CRH?

A

Corticotropin RH comes from hypothalamus and stimulates pituitary gland to produce adenocorticotropic which releases cortisol in stress

27
Q

GnRH

A

Gonadotropin release hormone from hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to produce reproductive hormones

28
Q

What is the hormone known as that comes out of pituitary gland?

A

The TROPIC hormone

29
Q

What may trigger hypothalamus and pituitary gland to release hormones?

A

Neurotransmitters
Injury
Release of chemical mediators from injury
Neuroendocrine signals

They provide input to hypothalamus to regulate bodily functions

Negative and positive feedback systems

30
Q

negative feedback loop

A

Most common mechanism

Influenced by environmental and body temp, stress, nutrition and body substances

Eg thyroid hormone or insulin in glucose regulation

31
Q

Example of negative feedback

A

Eating lots of carbohydrates - broken down to glucose
Glucose levels rise
Detected by beta cells in pancreas
Stimulates release of insulin
Insulin unlocks cells to absorb glucose
As glucose enters cells, blood glucose decreases
Pancreas stops producing insulin as it isn’t needed any more

32
Q

Positive feedback loop

A

Less common

Amplify changes rather than reverse them

Presence of hormone stimulates increased production of hormone until cycle is interrupted

Eg oxytocin in childbirth

33
Q

Oxytocin

A

In birth, cervix is stretched and stimulates oxytocin release from hypothalamus
More oxytocin means stronger and faster contractions
Cervix stretched even more as more oxytocin produced and baby pushes
Contractions stronger and faster until baby born
Cervix no longer stretched
Hypothalamus stops producing oxytocin

34
Q

Causes of altered hormone function

A

Impairment of pituitary gland or hypothalamus
Impairment of endocrine glands
Inactive hormone produced by gland
Too much or too little hormone produced
Inadequate hormone receptor binding
Lack of response from target cell when hormone binds - lock and key does not work
Impaired negative feedback loop
Hormone produced in wrong place
Impaired hormone metabolism and elimination

35
Q

What is acromegaly ?

A

Body produces too much growth hormone in adulthood

Usually due to a benign tumour on pituitary gland

Adults have large features so large hands and feet, enlarged tongue and prominent facials features

Susceptible to carpal tunnel syndrome

36
Q

Gigantism

A

Body produces too much growth hormone during childhood

Problem with pituitary gland, usually tumour

Child appears large all over - very tall, large hands and feet and facial features. Prominent jaw and forehead.

37
Q

Achondroplasia/ dwarfism

A

Too little growth hormone produced from pituitary gland

Short arms and legs and normal size torso

Genetic disorder

38
Q

Name some other endocrine disorders

A

Hyperthyroidism (grave’s disease)
Immune system will attack and damage thyroid gland cells

Hypothyroidism (goitre, myxedema and developmental delay in children)

Cushing syndrome

Diabetes mellitus / insipidus

Pheochromacytoma

Glucagonoma

Somatostatinoma

39
Q

What is thyroid like and what does it do?

A

Butterfly shape gland at anterior neck - shouldn’t be seen or able to palpate

Critical role in metabolism

Facilitates breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids for energy, stimulates heat and produces glucose

Produces other structural proteins, enzymes or hormones

Promotes growth and development in children mentally and physically

40
Q

Thyroid hormones

A

Thyrotropin RH comes from hypothalamus and stimulates thyroid hormone to produce thyroid stimulating hormone

Thyroid stimulating hormone makes us release other thyroid hormones =
T4= Thyroxine / tetraiodothyronine

T3= Triiodothyronine

Thyroid hormones also send signals to hypo and pituitary

Issues with thyroid may have temperature or stress symptoms

41
Q

Thyroid hormones being released causes what? 10

A

Increased glucose absorption
Increased oxygen consumption
Increased cardiac output
Release of lipids from adipose
Increased cholesterol breakdown in liver
Increased gastric motility
Increased body heat production
Metabolism of proteins from muscle tissue
Increased muscle tone and reactivity
Increased activation of cognitive processes

42
Q

Define hyperthyroidism

A

A disease where too many thyroid hormones are produced

43
Q

What causes hyperthyroidism?

A

Increased stimulation of thyroid gland

Disease of thyroid gland

Increased production of thyroid stimulating hormone by pituitary tumour

Medications with high levels of iodine - eg cough medicine

Health supplements or vitamins containing seaweed (high in iodine)

44
Q

Define hypothyroidism

A

Too little thyroid hormones produced from thyroid- congenital or acquired

45
Q

Describe congenital hypothyroidism

A

Occurs in foetal development

There is lack of thyroid development so lack of thyroid hormones produced

In Utero maternal T4 crosses placenta and baby appears normal at birth as they’ve grown and developed using mothers T4

Once cord is cut, there is gradual decline in growth and developmental delay as baby doesn’t produce own T4- has hypothyroidism

Baby needs T4 supplement - sometimes picked up too late and can’t be given T4 as they’ve already missed brain development so is life shortening

If detected by neonatal screening, or blood test, thyroid replacement treatment is given

46
Q

Graves’ disease

A

Auto immune disease causing excessive stimulation of thyroid gland

7-10 X more common in women than men

They think it is caused by immunoglobulin antibodies that bind to TSH receptors on thyroid is too many thyroid hormones produced

We get thyrotoxicosis= too many thyroid hormones in blood

Symptoms: Enlarged thyroid gland (goitre so swelling anterior neck)
Higher metabolic rate

Weight loss 
Agitation they can’t explain 
Sweating profusely 
Tachycardia 
Intolerant to heat 
Palpitations 
Tremor 
Fine hair everywhere 
Menstrual cycle problems 
Exophthalmos (bulging eyeballs) 
Weakness (as metabolism really high)

Treatment - quick treatment to prevent appearance like this
Medication to stop thyroid hormone production
Radio iodine treatment where radiotherapy destroys thyroid cells
Surgery to remove part or all of thyroid
Whole taken Away = supplements needed

47
Q

Acquired hypothyroidism

A

Thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormone

Due to:
Autoimmune disorder 
Iodine deficiency 
Surgical removal of thyroid gland 
Radiotherapy to thyroid gland 
Medications that destroyed thyroid gland

10 X common in women than men

Treatment : lifelong replacement hormone treatment
Eg, levothyroxine gives synthetic version of T4
Alleviation if clinical signs like constipation meds and fertility assistance

Symptoms:
Fatigued / lethargic
Cold all the time 
Weight gain
Dry skin 
Coarse hair 
Constipation 
Reproduction - fertility problems 
Memory problems  
Goitre- thyroid trying to produce more hormones so increases in size 
Protein- carbohydrates disturbance so appear boggy 
Oedematous tissues like hand, feet and face
Myxoedema 
Skin boggy and soft

Pathophysiology 1 (22 decks)

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