The Family

Question 1

Function of the family

Answer 1

o To socialise the young o Socialise – the process by which children acquire beliefs, motives, values, and behaviours deemed significant and appropriate by older members of their society (Shaffer, 2005)

Question 2

A family is…

Answer 2

o Two or more persons related by birth, marriage, adoption or choice’ who have emotional ties and responsibilities to each other (Shaffer, 2005)

Question 3

Define and give an example of direct, reciprocal and indirect effects of parents

Answer 3

o Direct

   Parent acts in a certain way and this influences the child  o Reciprocal
   Difficult child will be responded to differently than an easy child  o Indirect effects
   Mothers who have a supportive relationship with their husband are more sensitive in their interaction with their children

Question 4

The three propositions central to Harris’s argument that parenting makes little difference (1995)

Answer 4

o 1. Parental behaviours have no effect on the psychological characteristics that children will have as adults
o 2. Peer groups are the primary environmental influence on psychological functioning
o 3. Dyadic relationships are situation specific although they may give rise to powerful emotions, they produce only temporary changes in behaviour

Question 5

Socio-cognitive influences in child-rearing

Answer 5

o Modelling
o Enactive experience
o Direct tuition
 Note: evaluative praise better,
 Suggestions -> self-regulation
 Commands -> external regulation

Question 6

Socio-cognitive regulators

Answer 6

o Outcome expectations
 Social sanctions
 Self-sanctions
o Self-efficacy expectations

Question 7

• Tridiadic bidirectional interactive model

Answer 7

o Environment
o Behaviour
o Person

Question 8

Techniques for eliminating behaviour

Answer 8

o Physical/verbal punishment
 If its proportional, measured, w/o emotion and consistent, may work effectively.
 Punishment when emotional leads to a focus on punishment rather than lesson
o Extinction
o Time-out
 Age specified and child reflects on behaviour and a more appropriate behaviour -> fosters self-regulation
o Withdrawal of love – don’t
o Reasoning
 Inductive reasoning (Hoffman)
• Appeal to cognitive and affective system, elicit empathic reaction.
• Guilt will become internalised and generalised
o Reinforce alternative desirable behaviour

Question 9

Techniques for strengthening behaviour

Answer 9

o Material rewards
 Transferred reward from intrinsic to material reward with children present studies
 External rewards undermine motivation
 Reward contingent upon performance
o Social reward – praise with reason
o Verbal attributions – good girl for sharing – never negative.
o Direct instructions and maturity demands

Question 10

Factors that influence the effectiveness of disciplinary practices

Answer 10

o Link between behaviour and consequences
o Reasoning
o Consistency
o Proportional
o Age-appropriate
o Demands enforced
o Promotion of self-regulation

Question 11

Difference between physical punishment and physical abuse

Answer 11

o Behaviours that do not result in significant injury are considered corporal punishment whereas behaviours that cause injury are considered physical abuse.

Question 12

Child behaviours and experiences associated with parental corporal punishment

Answer 12

o Immediate compliance
o Moral externalisation
o Delinquent, criminal and antisocial behaviour
o Mental health issues
o Adult abuse of own child or spouse
o Victim of child abuse

Question 13

The 3 views on corporal punishment

Answer 13

o Pro-corporal punishment
o Anti-corporal punishment
o Conditional corporal punishment

Question 14

Criticism of Gershoff (2002)

Answer 14

o Baumrind’s (2002) reanalysis of the studies in Gershoff’s review indicated that some categorised as involving harsh punishment could be considered physical abuse – and that outcomes were more negative for those studies

Question 15

Methodological issues

Answer 15

o Varied definitions
o Retrospective reporting
o Spanking preceded negative behaviour
o Parents who spank less read more and hug their children more – co-effects

Question 16

Immediate negative side effects of pp

Answer 16

o Imitation of aggression hypothesis
o Avoidance of parents
o Anxiety inhibits recall of disciplinary encounter
o Highlights external control

Question 17

Cultural issues in PP

Answer 17

o Physical discipline associated with externalising problems in European US children but not AA
o Normativeness lessens effects but they still remain (Lansford, 2005)

Question 18

Religious issues in PP

Answer 18

o Important to consider in parents’ discipline of their children (Rodriguez & Henderson, 2010)
o More literal interpretationa of the bible were associated with greater child abuse potential.
o However regression analysis revealed that this effect did not account for any variance beyond that from social conformity

Question 19

Multi-generational families in same household

Answer 19

o Mothers primary c/g followed by grandmothers and then fathers
o Grandmothers increase the moral-relgious emphasis in the family

Question 20

Chao (2011) – parent adolescent relationships – Asian American vs European American

Answer 20

o Suggested that authorative parenting may reflect relationship qualities that emphasise closeness and intimacy rather than parental respect
o School outcomes
 Both first and second gen Chinese had significantly higher grades and effort than European American adolescents
 First gen Chinese had significantly higher grades than second gen.
o No difference in authoritative parenting style but higher % Chinese adolescents rated their parents as authoritarian
o No difference in relationship closeness
o Authoritative parenting positively related to closeness for all but authoritarian only negative for EA
o Authoritative positively associated with school grades and effort for EA, and effort for 2nd gen.

Question 21

Achieving autonomy

Answer 21

o AA tend to exert their authority longer than EA

Question 22

Behavioural control

Answer 22

o Parents attempt to structure and monitor their child’s whereabouts
o Criticism – children’s self-disclosure has been shown to more strongly predict parents’ knowledge of their child’s whereabouts and externalsing problems rather than parents active attempts to monitor their children

Question 23

Soenens et al (2006) – examined the links between parenting, self-disclosure and externalising – 3 step model

Answer 23

o 1. Parenting relates to adolescent self-disclosure – responsiveness strongest
o 2. Self-disclosure is positively related to parental knowledge
o 3. Parental knowledge negatively predicts substance use and delinquent behaviour
o Highlights importance of parents developing a warm, understanding, and personal relationship wth their adolescents

Question 24

Smentana et al (2009) – disclosure/non-disclosure factors

Answer 24

o Prudential issues – health, safety, comfort or harm to self (e.g. smoking)
 Most likely to disclose but might not if they fear parental disapproval
o Moral and conventional issues – other’s welfare, fairness
o Personal issues – control over one’s body, privacy friend and activity choices
 Behaviours personal and not harmful
o Multifaceted issues
 E.g. watching R-rated movies
o Anticipated parental disapproval was associated with partial disclosure and lying
o Full disclosure was associated with better relationships with parents and less depression
o Lying was associated with more parental behavioural control issues and poorer relationships with fathers

Question 25

Social class and parenting

Answer 25

o Low SES
 1. Stress obedience and respect for authority
 2. More authoritarian and power assertion
 3. Less reasoning, warmth and affection

Question 26

Collective family efficacy effects for adolescents and parents

Answer 26

o Positively correlated with
 Parental and marital efficacy (for parents)
 satisfaction with family life
 open communication with parents/adolescents
 complying with monitoring
 avoiding disagreements turning into hostility and aggression

Question 27

Jones and Prinz (2005) Parental self-efficacy

Answer 27

o Evidence links PSE to parental competence