The Final Exam 😨 Flashcards
(171 cards)
1
Q
Inductive Reasoning
A
Generalizations from specific observations
2
Q
Deductive Reasoning
A
Specific conclusions from general principles
3
Q
Evolution
A
Change in heritable characteristics over generations
4
Q
Water Polarity
A
Oxygen slight negative charge, hydrogen slight positive charges
4
Q
Natural Selection
A
Favorable traits lead to survival and reproduction
5
Q
Acidic pH
A
pH below 7
6
Q
Macromolecules
A
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
7
Q
Hydrolysis Reaction
A
Breaking molecules by adding a water molecule
7
Q
Buffer
A
Solution resisting pH changes by absorbing/releasing ions
8
Q
Dehydration Synthesis
A
Joining molecules by removing a water molecule
9
Q
Disaccharide
A
Carbohydrate of two monosaccharide units
9
Q
Monosaccharide
A
Single sugar molecule like glucose or fructose
10
Q
Polysaccharide
A
Complex carbohydrate of many monosaccharide units
11
Q
Purine Bases
A
Adenine and guanine nitrogenous bases
12
Q
Amino Acid
A
Molecule with amino group, carboxyl group, and side chain
12
Q
Pyrimidine Bases
A
Cytosine, thymine, uracil nitrogenous bases
13
Q
ATP
A
Adenosine triphosphate, primary energy carrier in cells
14
Q
DNA Base Pairing
A
Adenine with thymine, cytosine with guanine
15
Q
Peptide Bond
A
Covalent bond joining amino acids in a protein
16
Q
Protein Structure Levels
A
Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
17
Q
Enzyme
A
Biological catalyst speeding up chemical reactions
17
Q
Denaturation
A
Loss of protein structure and function due to external factors
17
Q
Saturated Fatty Acid
A
Single bonds between carbon atoms, saturated with hydrogen
18
Q
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
A
Double bonds between carbon atoms, fewer hydrogen atoms
19
Triglyceride
Lipid with three fatty acid molecules bonded to glycerol
20
Steroid
Lipid molecule with a fused ring structure
21
Phospholipid
Lipid with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
21
Robert Hooke
Discovered cells in cork slices, termed them 'cells.'
22
Cell Theory
States all organisms are made of cells, the cell is the basic unit, and cells come from pre-existing cells.
23
Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio
High ratio in small cells aids in efficient exchange.
24
Light Microscope
Used for low magnification observations of cells.
25
Peptidoglycan
Structural component of bacterial cell walls.
26
Prokaryotes
Lack nucleus and organelles; include bacteria.
26
Archaea
Found in extreme environments like hot springs.
27
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Site for protein synthesis and modification.
28
Endosymbiotic Theory
Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as prokaryotes.
29
Virus Structure
Genome surrounded by protein capsid; may have envelope.
30
Bacteriophage Life Cycle
Attachment, injection, replication, assembly, and lysis.
31
Cell Membrane Composition
Made of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.
32
Phospholipid Bilayer
Hydrophilic heads outward, hydrophobic tails inward.
33
Integral Proteins
Embedded in membrane, can span its width.
33
Cholesterol in Membrane
Stabilizes fluidity, modulates membrane fluidity.
34
Passive Transport
Movement across membrane without energy input.
35
Osmosis
Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
35
Simple Diffusion
Molecules move directly through lipid bilayer.
36
Endocytosis
Cell engulfs substances by forming vesicles.
36
Hypertonic Solution
Higher solute concentration outside cell, causing water loss.
37
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy conservation law.
38
Redox Reactions
Involve electron transfer; reduction and oxidation.
39
Entropy
Measure of disorder in a system.
39
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy tends to increase over time in closed systems.
40
ΔG (Gibbs Free Energy)
Determines spontaneity of a reaction.
41
Endergonic reactions
Require energy input, have positive ΔG, and are non-spontaneous.
41
ΔG
Gibbs free energy change; positive = non-spontaneous, negative = spontaneous.
42
Exergonic reactions
Release energy, have negative ΔG, and are spontaneous.
43
Activation energy
Energy needed to start a chemical reaction and overcome the barrier.
43
Catalyst
Speeds up reactions by lowering activation energy; like enzymes.
44
Substrate
Molecule acted upon by an enzyme in a chemical reaction.
44
Autotrophs
Organisms producing organic molecules from inorganic sources.
45
Heterotrophs
Organisms obtaining organic molecules from other organisms.
46
Stomata
Pores on leaves regulating gas exchange during photosynthesis.
46
Photosystem
Complex capturing light energy during photosynthesis.
47
Mitosis
Cell division for growth and repair, ensuring genetic fidelity.
47
Chloroplasts
Cell organelles where photosynthesis occurs.
48
Binary fission
Asexual reproduction in prokaryotes; cell division into two.
48
Kinetochore
Protein structure at the centromere for spindle fiber attachment.
49
Double-stranded DNA
Molecule carrying genetic information in cells.
49
Chromatin
DNA and histone protein complex forming chromosomes.
50
Homologous chromosomes
Chromosome pairs with the same genes but may have different alleles.
50
Sister chromatids
Identical chromosome copies produced by DNA replication.
51
Centromere
Region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are joined.
52
Karyotype
Visual representation of an individual's chromosomes.
52
Autosomal Chromosomes
22 pairs in humans, not related to sex determination
53
Haploid Cells
Contain one set of chromosomes (n)
54
Cell Cycle
Includes interphase (G1, S, G2) and mitotic (M) phase
55
Diploid Cells
Contain two sets of chromosomes (2n)
55
Meiosis
Produces four haploid daughter cells with genetic variability
56
G0 Phase
Non-dividing state, exits active cell cycle
56
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm after nuclear division
57
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
Regulate cell cycle progression and ensure accuracy
58
Sexual Reproduction
Involves fusion of gametes for genetic recombination
59
Synapsis
Pairing of homologous chromosomes in meiosis
59
Asexual Reproduction
Produces genetically identical offspring
59
Crossing Over
Exchange of genetic material in prophase I of meiosis
59
Independent Assortment
Random alignment of homologous chromosomes
60
Phenotype
Observable traits of an organism
60
Nondisjunction
Improper separation of chromosomes during division
61
Gregor Mendel
Father of modern genetics, studied pea plants
61
Alleles
Alternate forms of a gene at the same locus
62
Genetic Variability
Occurs through independent assortment, crossing over, and fertilization
63
Genotype
Genetic makeup of an organism
64
Codominance
Both alleles contribute to the phenotype in a heterozygote
64
Monohybrid Crosses
Inheritance of a single trait governed by one gene
65
Incomplete Dominance
Heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between homozygotes
66
Loci
Specific positions on chromosomes where alleles are found
67
Epistasis
One gene's expression masks or modifies another gene
68
Sex-Linked Gene
Gene located on a sex chromosome, inherited differently in males and females
68
Polygenic Inheritance
Trait controlled by multiple genes, leading to continuous variation
68
SRY Gene
On Y chromosome, initiates male sex determination
69
Pleiotropy
Single gene influences multiple seemingly unrelated traits
70
Color blindness
Example of X-linked recessive trait.
71
X-linked recessive traits
Expressed in males due to single X chromosome.
72
Cytoplasmic inheritance
Genes located outside nuclear chromosomes.
73
Hemophilia
Example of X-linked recessive trait.
74
Genomic imprinting
Gene expression dependent on parent of origin.
75
Genetic recombination
Exchange of genetic material between chromosomes.
76
Trisomy
Presence of an additional chromosome.
77
Monosomy
Absence of one chromosome.
78
Turner syndrome
Associated with XO chromosome.
78
Down syndrome
Absence of one chromosome.
79
Klinefelter syndrome
Associated with XXY chromosome.
80
Triple X syndrome
Associated with XXX chromosome.
81
Jacob's syndrome
XYY syndrome with extra Y chromosome.
81
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
Genetic testing from placental cells.
82
Genetic counseling
Support for genetic conditions and family planning.
83
Central dogma of molecular biology
Genetic info flow: DNA to RNA to protein.
83
Transcription
DNA to RNA synthesis process.
83
Amniocentesis
Genetic testing from amniotic fluid.
84
mRNA
Carries genetic info for protein synthesis.
84
Translation
Decoding mRNA to amino acids for protein synthesis.
85
Coding strand
Decoding mRNA to amino acids for protein synthesis.
86
Template strand
Decoding mRNA to amino acids for protein synthesis.
87
tRNA
Carries amino acids during translation.
88
rRNA
Structural component of ribosomes.
89
Prokaryotic transcription
Occurs in the cytoplasm.
90
Eukaryotic transcription
Occurs in the nucleus.
91
Amino acids
Building blocks of proteins.
92
Genetic code
Rules for translating mRNA to proteins.
93
Codon
Three-nucleotide sequence in mRNA.
94
Stop codons
Signals termination of translation.
95
Start codon
AUG codes for methionine and translation start.
96
Degenerate genetic code
Multiple codons for most amino acids.
96
Universal genetic code
Shared code across living organisms.
97
Gene parts
Coding and regulatory regions.
98
Transcription stages
Initiation, elongation, termination.
99
RNA polymerases
Enzymes for transcribing DNA into RNA.
100
Post-transcriptional modifications
Addition of cap and poly-A tail to mRNA.
101
Exons
Coding regions in mature mRNA.
102
Introns
Non-coding regions removed during splicing.
103
mRNA splicing
Removal of introns and joining of exons.
104
Non-coding DNA
Significant portion in eukaryotic genomes.
105
Anticodon
Three-nucleotide sequence in tRNA.
105
tRNA charging
Process of adding amino acid to tRNA.
105
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
Enzyme transferring activated amino acid to tRNA
106
Ribosome
Molecular machine with A, P, and E sites
106
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
106
Translation stages
Molecular machine with A, P, and E sites
106
Post-translational modifications
Changes to proteins after synthesis
107
Chargaff's rule
Equal A=T, G=C in DNA
108
Rosalind Franklin
Provided X-ray evidence for DNA structure
109
Watson and Crick
Proposed DNA double helix structure
110
Nucleotide
DNA unit with phosphate, sugar, base
111
Purines and pyrimidines
A,G purines; T,C pyrimidines
112
Sugar types in DNA
Deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA
113
Sugar-phosphate backbone
Alternating sugar-phosphate chain in DNA
114
Base pairing in DNA
A-T, G-C hydrogen bonds in DNA
115
Anti-parallel strands
Opposite 5' to 3' orientation in DNA
115
Semi-conservative replication
DNA replication yielding two daughter molecules
116
Helicase
Unwinds DNA double helix
117
DNA primase
Synthesizes RNA primers for DNA polymerase
118
DNA polymerase
Adds nucleotides to DNA chain
118
DNA ligase
Joins DNA fragments during replication
119
DNA replication components
Template DNA, nucleotides, enzymes
119
DNA topoisomerase
Relieves torsional strain in DNA replication
120
Origins of replication
Sites where DNA replication begins
121
Leading and lagging strands
Continuous and discontinuous DNA synthesis
122
Replication fork
Region where DNA strands separate
123
Single-stranded binding proteins
Stabilize unwound DNA during replication
124
Proofreading by DNA polymerase
Corrects errors in DNA synthesis
125
Mutation
Change in DNA sequence with various effects
126
Genomics and Bioinformatics
Study of genomes and computational analysis
