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1
Q

What are the functions of the nasal cavities?

A

Conduction and preparations of inspired air
- moisten, warm, filter
Heat exchanger for cooling the brain
- air warmed by venous blood making it cool, as it passes down past warm arterial blood they switch allowing cool blood to the brain
Olfaction (smell)
- caudal regions of turbinates covered by special olfactory epithelium

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2
Q

The nasal cavity is bordered by:
dorsally:
ventrally:
laterally:
rostrally:
caudally:
axially:

A

dorsally: nasal bones.
ventrally: hard palate.
laterally: incisive bone & maxilla.
rostrally: nares (nostrils)
caudally: nasopharynx
axially: nasal septum (separates nasal cavities)

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3
Q

What are nares?

A

Nostrils - the actual holes

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4
Q

What is nasal cartilage attached to?

A

Attached to the nasal septum

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5
Q

What do cattle and sheep have surrounding their nostrils?

A

Smooth hairless nasolabial plate, has stratified cornified epithelium and nasolabial glands that secrete serous moisture on them

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6
Q

How are horses able to flare their nostrils and change their shape (distensible)?

A

No ventral nasal cartilage, they have an incomplete cartilaginous ring made of alar cartilage

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7
Q

How can horses have a ‘true’ and ‘false’ nostril?

A

‘true’ nostrils are the real ones that lie ventrally
‘false’ nostrils lie dorsal and are blind ended pockets lined with diverticulum in the nasoincisive notch

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8
Q

What is the real name of the ‘false nostril’?

A

nasal diverticulum

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9
Q

Why do horses need to flair their nostrils?

A

To improve airflow when exercising as they cannot breathe with their mouths, they are obligate nasal breathers

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10
Q

What is the important muscle to know for horse nasal dilation?

What are the nostril dilating muscles innervated by and supplied by in the horse?

A

Levator nasolabialis - pulls nose upwards and outwards

Innervated by facial nerve
Supplied by facial artery

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11
Q

What are the features of cat and dog noses?

A

A nasal plate that’s divided by the median groove (philtrum), it’s secretions come from the lateral nasal gland

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12
Q

What causes Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS) in flat faced cats and dogs?

A

Stenotic nares (nose is clamped = resistance to airflow)
Elongated & thickened soft palette
Enlarged tongue
Narrow trachea

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13
Q

How does Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS) in flat faced cats and dogs affect their QOL??

A

Increased breathing noise
Coughing & shortness of breath
Sleep apnoea
Exercise intolerance

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14
Q

How can external nasal aperture stenosis be fixed?

A

Surgery - cartilage lifted upwards and out to make breathing easier

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15
Q

What makes pig noses different?

Describe some other characteristics of the pig nose:

A

Their nose has a rostral bone

Highly sensitive as innovated by lots of nerves
Small nares
Flat mobile snout

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16
Q

What are the 2 important features of bird noses/nares?

A

Slit like opening in side of beak (bar diving birds)
Operculum (bony flap overhang to prevent debris getting in)

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17
Q

What is the nasal vestibule?

What does it contain?

A

Opening of nasal cavity from the nostril

Contains opening of nasolacrimal duct (visible on dental surface) which drains excess tears from the eyes and also has secretory glands in many species

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18
Q

What bones are involved in the nasal cavity…
Dorsally
Laterally
Ventrally
Caudally
Axial

A

Dorsal - Nasal bones 1
Lateral - Incisive bones 2 + Maxilla 3
Ventral - Palatine bones
Caudal - Ethmoidal bone (back of nasal cavity)
Axial - Nasal septum

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19
Q

What is the name given to the pair of caudal openings at the back of the nasal cavity into the nasopharynx?

A

Choanae (singular = choana)

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20
Q

Where does the nasal cavity extend to?

What divides it into left and right?

What then divides each side further still?

A

From nostrils to cribriform plate of ethmoid bone

The nasal cavity

The nasal conchae

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21
Q

What are nasal conchae?

A

Large scrolls of turbinate bone structures covered in mucosa in the nasal cavity, highly vascularised and increase surface area of the nasal cavity - they are species specific

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22
Q

What are the differences between dog and horse conchae/turbinates, why is this significant?

A

Dog: turbinates not conchae, small passages so little area for air flow so more resistance but better at catching particles and warming blood
Horse: conchae not turbinates, large passages with lots of room for air flow so less resistance but more pathogens can get in and less warming

Highlights species differences, dogs can breath through their mouths if needed where as horses can’t so they require more airflow

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23
Q

Name the nasal conchae found n horses:

A
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24
Q

What are the dorsal and middle conchae attached to and why is this significant?

Where does the ventral go?

A

The ethmoid turbinate - where olfactory centres are

Straight into the pharynx and then into the trachea

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25
The nasal conchae in horses divide the nasal cavity into 4 separate passages, what are their names?
Dorsal meatus (to olfactory mucosa) Middle meatus (to paranasal sinuses) Ventral meatus (to pharynx) Common meatus (runs along the septum)
26
So, what is the nasal cavity trying to balance in all of it's variation?
Airflow resistance Defence mechanisms Warming and moistening air Olfaction
27
Birds have 3 conchae, what are their names?
28
What kind of epithelium is found on the vestibule? What kind of epithelium is found with the nasal cavity?
Vestibule - stratified squamous epithelium Nasal cavity - respiratory epithelium ---> olfactory epithelium (specialised respiratory found at ethmoid)
29
Which part of the nose is important in pheromone detection and what kind mucous is present there? What makes it unique from other olfactory organs?
Vomeronasal organ involved in olfaction (secondary/accessory olfaction organ) so has an olfactory epithelium Has unique chemoreceptors = pheromone detection
30
What are the 5 functions of the respiratory epithelium?
1. Regulation of air flow by erectile tissue (changes shape, changing airflow) 2. Cleaning (cilia) 3. Humidification (evaporator) 4. Warming (variable blood perfusion) 5. Protecting reflexes (sneeze relfex)
31
What is the name of the circled structures extending rostrally from the ethmoid bone?
The ethmoturbinates
32
What are ethmoturbinates covered in and what do they contain? What function do animals do to bring air into contact with the ethmoturbinates?
Covered in respiratory epithelium and contain olfactory sensory neurones Sniffing as it alters normal airflow
33
Where is the olfactory region? What CN controls the olfactory region? Why do olfactory cells have dendrites?
Back of the nasal cavity (except vomeronasal organ) CN l (olfactory) Cilia-like structures that have receptors on the end of them that detect chemicals
34
Where is the vomeronasal organ located? What is the name given to the lip curling animals do when detecting pheromones?
Rostral in the hard palette Flehmen
35
What do the sinus's drain into?
The back of the nasal cavity
36
What parts of the respiratory system account for >60% of resistance?
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx
37
What are the paranasal sinuses? What are they lined by? What nerves are the paranasal sinuses innervated by?
Air filled diverticula (compartments) of the nasal cavity Respiratory epithelium - same as nasal cavity as they are continuous with each other Ophthalmic and maxillary branches of the trigeminal nerve (V)
38
Although there is species variation with the paranasal sinuses what stays the same across all?
All have frontal and maxillary systems
39
What separates the paranasal sinuses so that there is left and right?
The nasal septum, no interconnection between left and right but all cavities are connected to each other on their own side
40
What are the 4 functions of the paranasal sinuses?
1. Resonating cavities (amplifying voice) 2. Insulation / cooling (the brain) 3. Reduces weight of skull - air filled cavity allowing a larger skull for insertion surfaces 4. Space for long teeth/tooth roots
41
Why should you remove cattles horns before 2 months of age, and if after be very careful where you cut them from?
After 2 months the horns connect to the frontal bones of the skull and the frontal sinus sits in the base of the horn so would be exposed to flies and infection if cut open
42
Where are the frontal sinuses located? Where are the maxillary sinuses located?
Frontal = forehead Maxillary = under eye
43
How many paranasal sinuses do horses have? How many of these are frontal and how many are maxillary? Name them :)
6 altogether 2 Frontal - frontal - dorsal conchal 4 maxillary - rostral maxillary - caudal maxillary - ventral conchal - sphenopalatine
44
Fill in the blanks of how the sinuses drain in horses:
45
What sinuses are the cheek teeth 8-11 found in (6+7 embedded in maxilla bone)? Why is this important to know?
8+9 = rostral maxillary sinus 10+11 = caudal maxillary sinus Tooth root abscesses can go into the sinuses (can cause nasal discharge)
46
What are hypsodonts?
Animals whose teeth continuously grow all throughout their lives ie. horses
47
What is the nasolacrimal duct? Where does the duct run?
Tube that drains excess tears from the medial canthus of the eye to the nasal cavity Starts at nasal puncta in medial canthus of eye, runs within infra-orbital canal through maxillary sinus (along teeth), continues within maxilla, exits at the nostril in horses and cattle and the nasal cavity in dogs
48
Label the following transverse diagram:
49
What is unilateral discharge? What is bilateral discharge? How does this help determine where the issue is?
Unilateral = 1 sided nasal discharge Bilateral = both sides/nostrils producing discharge Unilateral in in the head where the nasal septum still runs, bilateral is behind the head probably in the lungs
50
How does sinus disease present? What is considered primary sinusitis and what is considered secondary? How might you identify sinus disease?
Chronic unilateral purulent nasal discharge +/- facial swelling Primary - bacterial Secondary - dental (very smelly), cyst, neoplasia Taking a radiograph or using an endoscope
51
What is sinus trephination?
Drilling a hole into the sinus and either flushing out the sinus or using it to place in an endoscope
52
Where is the infraorbital sinus located in birds?
rostroventral to the eye (triangular cavity)
53
What are horns made of?
Keratin
54
What nerves innovate the horns in animals?
Cornual nerve - 100% animals Cornual branch of infratrochlear nerve - 90% animals Frontal nerve - 15% animals Branches from C1 and C2 - 5% animals
55
Where are the cornual nerve and cornual branch of the infratrochlear nerve located?
Cornual nerve Halfway between lateral canthus and horn base - along ridge of frontal bone Cornual branch of infratrochlear nerve Located between medial canthus and medial horn base - groove on cattle skull
56
What nerves must be blocked when dehorning/debudding calves and what tenchique is used? What nerves must be blocked when dehorning/debudding cattle and goats and what tenchique is used?
CALVES - Cornual nerve block only - Burn off CATTLE & GOATS - Cornual and cornual branch of infratrochlear n. blocks (may also need to block region caudal to horn) - Wire/saw (fast to create heat to cauterise blood vessels, avoid opening sinus)
57
Why must you be careful when dehorning kids?
Frontal sinus very small and thin so too much heat can damage the brain
58
What supplies blood to the horns in ruminants?
2 branches of the maxillary artery: - superficial temporal artery - cornual artery (very vascular, why you must be quick with wire cutting)
59
What is different about deer horns? What is different about Rhinoceros Horns?
Bone not keratin and grow rapidly (re-grow every year) Covered in active cells called 'velvet' that actively lay down bone Keratin but fibres less densely packed and no bony core
60
What is the pharynx? What are the 3 subdivisions of the pharynx?
Common cavity for food and ingesta (nourishment) Nasopharynx - connects to nasal cavity Oropharynx - connects to oral cavity Laryngopharynx - connects to oesophagus
61
What are the following limits of the nasopharynx? Ventral Rostral Caudal Lateral & Dorsal What lines the nasopharynx?
Ventral - soft palette Rostral - choanae Caudal - pharynx + laryngopharynx Lateral & Dorsal - pharyngeal wall Respiratory epithelium
62
What is the nasopharyngeal recess? Where is the nasopharyngeal recess on this photo?
Blind ending caudodorsal extension of the nasopharynx found in most ungulates (horses cheep cattle etc.)
63
What are the following limits of the oropharynx? Dorsal Ventral Rostral Caudal Dorsal What lines the nasopharynx?
Dorsal - soft palette Ventral - tongue Rostral - oral cavity Caudal - pharynx + laryngopharynx Lined with squamous epithelium
64
What are the following limits of the laryngopharynx? Rostral Caudal Ventral Lateral & Dorsal
Rostral - free tip of the soft palette and pharynx Ventral - larynx Caudal - opening of oesophagus Lateral & Dorsal - pharyngeal wall
65
What is the soft palette?
A flexible muscle structure that divides the oropharnynx from the pharynx
66
In the soft palette where is the palatinus muscle found and what is its function? In the soft palette where is the tensor veli palatini found and what is its function? In the soft palette where is the levitator veli palatini found and what is its function?
In main body of soft palette and shortens and tightens it Found in rostral side wall and causes lateral traction and therefore tension Found in caudal side wall and raises the palette during swallowing and mouth breathing
67
What nerve innovates the soft palette?
Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve
68
What type of muscles controls the constriction, shortening, and dilation of the pharyngeal wall? What is constriction and shortening important for?
Striated muscles inserted onto the roof of the pharynx, a few muscles involved in shortening and constricting but only 1 involved in dilating (don't need to know specific names) The passage of food
69
What nerve innovated the pharyngeal wall? Why is it important to know that the pharyngeal wall is under neuronal control?
The vagus (X) and hypoglossal nerve (Xll) If something stops working it is the nerves that have gone wrong not the muscles
70
How does the process of swallowing work?
1. Soft palette elevated obstructing the nasopharynx and opening the oropharynx 2. Palatopharyngeal arch constricts 3. Hyoid apparatus pulls larynx forwards 4. Epiglottis flips back covering the tracheal opening 5. Tounge pushes food into oesophagus
71
What is the guttural pouch?
A large diverticulum of the auditory tube in horses (auditory tube present in all species, runs from nasopharynx to middle ear)
72
What are the following margins of the guttural pouch: Dorsal Ventral Lateral Medial
Dorsal - base of skull Ventral - laryngopharynx & oesophagus Lateral - skin Medial - septum
73
The horse has a left and right guttural pouch, each pouch is then divided again into compartments. What are the names of the compartments and what bone causes this second division?
Lateral and medial compartments Divided by the stylohyoid bone
74
What important nerves and blood vessels run through the guttural pouch? (exam question mentioned)
CN: IX glossopharyngeal X vagus XII hypoglossal (nerves important as guttural disease could lead to nerve deficits) Blood vessels: Internal carotid artery External carotid artery (if burst due to disease massive haemorrhage)
75
Give an example of a bacterial and a fungal guttural pouch disease:
Bacterial: Strangles (Strep. equi) - subspecies equi. - highly infectious Fungal: Mycosis - Fungal plaque growing in guttural pouch that invades underlying tissues - Neurological disease risk if over nerves - Could burst arteries if overlying vessels
76
When passing an endoscope through the nose which meatus use it pass through?
Ventral meatus
77
What is the larynx?
Non-collapsable cartilaginous tube that acts as a valve mechanism to seperate what your eating vs. when you breathe
78
What are the following margins of the larynx: Ventral Caudal What is the larynx suspended by? Where is the larynx located in different species?
Ventral to the laryngopharynx (start of oesophagus) Caudal to the tongue Suspend by the hyoid apparatus which articulates at the temporal bone at base of skull - In horses, ruminants and birds between the rami of the mandible - In carnivores and pigs it's in the neck
79
What is the laryngeopharynx?
Bands of muscles that hold the start of the oesophagus closed
80
What species of the hard and soft palette a feature of?
Only found in mammals as they prevent liquid from coming back our of your mouth
81
Label the following diagram of the larynx, pharynx regions:
82
What are the functions of the larynx? (highlight 1 difference in birds)
- connects nasal part of pharynx and trachea - respiration - protection of lower airways - swallowing - straining (expiration against closed glottis) - coughing - Phonation (formation of voice) ----> birds use syrinx as no vocal folds
83
What is the hyoid apparatus?
Series of bones linked by synovial joints that move backwards and forwards to 'shuttle' the larynx
84
Name the bones of the hyoid apparatus found in dogs and cats:
85
Name the bones of the hyoid apparatus in the horse:
86
Why can't horses mouth breathe?
Due to their epihyoid bone in the hyoid apparatus being so small they are missing the 'elbow' which is what allows the caudal and cranial movement of the larynx under the soft palette for mouth breathing
87
What is the lingual process?
Attached to the basihyoid in equines and bovines (much shorter in bovines) it is found at the root of the tongue
88
What is the basic make up components of the larynx?
Hyaline and elastic cartilage held together by collagenous and elastic ligaments and synovial joints allowing a little movement but preventing them from collapsing. Striated musculature Mucous membrane Vessels + nerves
89
Where are the vocal folds located?
Inside the larynx
90
What are the 3 cavities in the larynx?
1. Vestibule - entrance 2. Glottis - doorways that change size when opening and closing, focal folds 3. Infraglottic cavity - behind vocal folds, before trachea
91
What is Hobdays operation?
Going into the ventral aspect of the horses larynx through the caudal thyroid notch if the horse is roaring
92
What are the 2 pairs of ligaments that are involved with the larynx that you must know about?
The vestibular ligament vestibular fold which sits rostrally The vocal ligament vocal fold which sits caudally Both connect the arytenoid cartilage to the bottom of the larynx and are involved in the opening and closing of the glottis
93
What are the two kinds of laryngeal cartilage and where are they found?
Hyaline - thyroid (U shaped) - cricoid (signet ring, sits in thyroid) - paired arytenoids (triangular, on top of thyroid and cricoid) Elastic - epiglottis (leaf shaped, buffer) - paired arytenoids (triangular)
94
What joint connects the cricoid and thyroid cartilage and what type of joint is this?
Cricothyroid joint - synovial joint
95
What type of muscle is are the laryngeal muscles made of? Where are the intrinsic muscles and what are they involved in? What do the extrinsic muscles connect and what are they involved in?
Striated muscle Between laryngeal cartilage, involved in respiration and phonation Connect the larynx to the hyoid bones, pharynx and sternum and involved in swallowing
96
Which is the only muscle involved in opening/widening the glottis? Why is this clinically important? What nerve supplies this muscle?
Dorso cricoarytenoid muscle As it's the only muscle that opens if damaged or paralysed (usually left side) the glottis cannot open - causes roaring in horses as sucked during inspiration Recurrent laryngeal
97
What are the two muscles involved in closing/narrowing the glottis (less important to know)?
Cricothroideus Cricoartenoideus lateralis
98
What are the two laryngeal nerves?
Cranial laryngeal nerve (X) from vagus - sensory innervation of mucous membrane - motor innervation of cricothyroideus Recurrent laryngeal nerve (Xl) - innervates all muscles except cricothyroideus
98
How would you identify doors cricoarytenoid muscle damage/paralysis in horses?
Listen for roaring Slap test Palpation to try and identify muscle atrophy
99
How is the larynx sealed?
Sealed by the vocal folds coming together closing the glottis (NOT ELEVATION OF EPIGLOTTIS)
99
What is laryngeal hemiplegia?
Paralysis of one side of the dorso cricoarytenoid muscle

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