the impact of dictatorial regimes on the economy and society of the russian empire Flashcards
(49 cards)
1
Q
why did economic change occur?
A
- create wealthier country-especially focused on heavy industry (iron, coal, engineering)
- to “catch up with the west” (saw that britain, france and germany built economic power on industry
- to increase military status and power
2
Q
what was industry like under alexander II?
A
- reutern reforms (1862-1878) = encouraged foreign investment and expertise
- more railway construction which was necessary for transport of industry and greater communication
3
Q
what was industry like under alexander III?
A
- trans-siberian railway
- vyshnegradski = medele’ev tariff 1891, exported large amounts of grain in order to increase money coming into country
> problems = was removed from position in 1891, as policies made famine worse
4
Q
what was industry like under nicholas II?
A
- witte and the “great spurt” = increased foreign experts, loans and higher taxes to invest more in industry
- investment in heavy industry = doubles coal, increased iron and steel. plus development of new industries started (oils and chemicals)
- increased railway
> problems = industry still behind west’s (e.g 10% of britain’s in 1910) not enough investment in engineering and textiles - not enough investment or policies in agriculture
- world war 1
- industry couldn’t cope with demands of war (lack of weapons, poor transport and economy suffered due to high inflation = food shortages)
5
Q
what was industry like under lenin?
A
- state capitalism controlled economy through supreme economic council (all businesses with over 10 employees had to be nationalised)
> problems = near collapse of economy and industry due to focus on war - war communism (nationalisation and militarisation of labour to provide weapons for civil war
- nep = denationalisation for small businesses (growth of consumerism) and some private ownership allowed. use of foreign trade and expertise allowed again. nepmen flourished
6
Q
what was industry like under stalin?
A
- return to centralised planning under seven 5 year plans aiming to make russia a rival to west and create self sufficiency
- increase in electricity, iron, steel and electricity (justified with outbreak of war and need for weapons and transport) new towns emerged, specialising in iron and steel production
> problems = consumer industries neglected - targets very high and difficult to meet = death, arrests and suicides
- standard of living poor = high hours, low pay and poor working conditions
7
Q
what was industry like under khrushchev?
A
- 6th and 7th 5 year plans
- more focus on consumer goods
- targets were abandoned (too high)
- rate of production slowed
8
Q
what was the continuity between tsars and communists regarding industry?
A
- use of foregin investment and expertise under tsars and lenin (stalin until mid 1930s)
- focus by both on industry (especially iron, coal and steel) e.g. “great spurt”, nep and 5 year plans. aimed to increase russia’s economy and power comparison with west.
- agriculture seen as serving needs of industry
- both influenced by war (alex II = crimean war, lenin = ww1, stalin = ww2) realization that greater industry and technology needed for defense and status
9
Q
what was agriculture like under alexander II?
A
emancipation of serfs 1861 = peasants now free from servitude to nobility and could buy their own land using redemption payments
10
Q
what was agriculture like under alexander III?
A
> problem = exported large amounts of grain under vyshnegradskii = famine of 1891 worse
- peasant land bank introduced (peasants able to buy more land due to low rates on loans) = some improvements
11
Q
what was agriculture like under nicholas II?
A
- stolypin’s reforms through “wager on the strong” policy = encouraged to buy more land through land banks and consolidate “strips” into larger small holdings of land
- led to rise of kulaks/wealthier peasants
- although they benefitted, still believed the best land was kept by nobility
> problem = by 1914, 2 million peasants moved to towns and cities
12
Q
what was agriculture like under lenin?
A
- decree on land = peasants able to seize land and then redistributed by local soviets
> problem = forced grain requisitioning through war communism to feed red army - improvements under nep (i.e peasants able to sell surplus supplies)
13
Q
what was agriculture like under stalin?
A
- removal of nep = introduction of collectivisation (farms became larger collective farms and grain taken by state, restrictions on crops etc) more success in 1930s (by 1937 = 97% collectivised)
- kulaks persecuted for grain hoarding and seen as potential threat
- kolkhozy farms: owned by state but worked on by peasants, or sovkhozy farms: owned by state and worked on by state employees
- centralised control through mts
- grain exported abroad to raise money for industry
> problems = 1932-4 famine made worse by grain requisitioning. peasants also disliked control over what they could produce and removal of mir in 1930 damaged traditions - but some improvements for peasants from special charter 1935 = increased payments and gave more legal security
14
Q
what was agriculture like under khrushchev?
A
- increased payments for what the state took
- less produce had to be handed over
- less taxes
- more electricity
- virgin land scheme: greater use of uncultivated land in kazakhstan (increase production of wheat)
> problems = land overused and not enough crop rotation - made drought in 1963 even worse and khrushchev blamed for famine
15
Q
why did social change occur in russia?
A
- rising birth rate (more marriage, economic improvements etc) and lower death rates (except during war and famine)
- many peasants moved to towns = urban workers
- growth of middle class under tsar due to education reforms, emancipation, zemstva and opportunities in industry
- decline of nobility = loss of position after emancipation and sold off land
- communists = greater emphasis on workers
- soviets and significance in 5 year plans
16
Q
what were the changes to social structure under the tsars?
A
- only 15% lived in towns and cities by 1900 = industry still undeveloped still
- many peasants moving to cities for work = became very skilled and in greater demand
- rise of middle class (professionals, commercial, new businesses, trade etc) but still only 2 million in 1914 but still threat to nobility
- nobility declining due to spending and rise of middle class economic power. sold land to peasants affter emancipation = lost some influence
- some nobility that remained powerful= helped tsar keep power
17
Q
what were the changes to social structure under the communists?
A
- hierarchy did emerge, through those involved in bureaucracy/government departments, with elite group on top
- even for workers, some became technical experts or managers and this gave them extra privileges
- elements of hierarchy showed continuity with the tsars
18
Q
what was education like under the alexander II?
A
- initially became under control of zemstva in rural areas
- by 1877 = ministry of education took control and inspectors introduced
- increase in children attending secondary schools, even for poor
19
Q
what was education like under the alexander III?
A
- reversed some of alex II’s reforms
- tighter control of education by church
- greater restrictions and censorship for universities
- lower class children banned from attending secondary school
- shows restrictions and indoctrination
20
Q
what was education like under the nicholas II?
A
- stolypin banned meetings at university that were not academic
- shows control and concern over opposition
21
Q
what was the increase of children attending primary schools under the tsars and what did it show?
A
1880 = 23,000 vs 1914 = 81,000
shows improvement for lower class children but motivated by need to industrialise and catch up with western countries
22
Q
what was education like under the communists?
A
- 1930 attendance at school was compulsory until age 12, increase for those attending secondary school to 6.9 million by 1932
- stalin scrapped school fees in 1939
- adult literacy encouraged through classes and organisation under trade unions
- new vocational schools and institutes for older students and military colleges also created
- but standards of education for lower class children was basic (and indoctrinated with stalinist ideas
- elitism still existed and education served to enforce and maintain communist ideas
23
Q
what were the changes to urban housing under the tsars?
A
- by 1900, only 15% of russians lived in cities (compared to 80% in britain)
- st petersburg and moscow were biggest cities but others, like riga and kiev had also grown by 1914
24
Q
what problems in urban housing was there under the tsars?
A
- rapid pace of urbanisation = overcrowding with poor housing and sanitation = diseases (cholera)
- many towns didn’t have electricity, gas or piped water
- nicholas II made some improvements (e.g. a sewage system installed in st petersburg in 1911 after cholera outbreak
- factories: located on edge of towns = woorker “barracks” built there. quickly built= overcrowded and unsanitary
- some involved in smaller industries, even slept in their workshops
- overall = many workers faced very harsh and life threatening living conditions
25
what were the changes to urban housing under the communists?
- after decree on peace (1918), the bolsheviks seized private property and handed to proletariat
- organised by soviets
- some improvement but short-lived
26
what problems in urban housing was there under stalin?
- overcrowding returned in 1930s, with 25% of families in one room and 25% also lived in communal dormitories
- allocated space rather then rooms to individuals and families
- built high rise tenements but bathrooms and kitchens were shared (argued more investment needed to be put into industry and 5 year plans rather then social projects
- ww2 = over 25 million became homeless (invasion and bombing) and attempts at rebuilding weren't enough
27
what improvements in urban housing was there under khrushchev?
- 1955-1964 = housing stock doubled and communal living abandoned
- morale and better living standards increased
- but those involved in housing cooperatives often had best housing (wealthier professionals who could afford deposits)
28
under tsars and during early communism, what was rural housing like?
- most peasants lived in wooden hut with 1 room, crowded with people and animals
- cold and damp but very cheap to make
29
under stalin and khrushchev, what was rural housing like?
- "special" housing blocks built for some peasants on edge of collective farms
- became overcrowded and had public health problems
30
what were rural working conditions like under the tsars?
- emancipation edict 1861 = freed slaves from servitude to nobility (problems: redemption payments = tied to land and mir restricted activities)
- peasant land banks = able to buy more land at low rates
- stolypin's "wager on the strong" = enabled peasants to buy land and consolidate strips of land into larger farms
- creation of kulaks (able to sell surplus)
31
what were rural working conditions like under lenin?
- problems: under war communism= grain requisitioned by cheka and made worse by famine
- kulaks persecuted for suspected grain hoarding
- improvements: under nep = grain requisitioning stopped and peasants could sell surplus
- kulaks seen as educated and cultured (still had to pay higher taxes)
32
what were rural working conditions like under stalin?
- collectivisation = majority worked in larger, state farms
- kulaks persecuted as potential opposition (exiled or arrested)
- grain was exported to pay investment into industry = shortages for peasants and workers (similar to alex III and nick II)
33
what improvements and problems did tsars make to urban working conditions?
improvements:
- 1882 = factory inspectorate introduced under alex III. children under 12 not allowed to wokr there
- 1896 = 11 hour day and no work on sundays (nick II)
- 1903 = workers insurance scheme introduced
- 1914 = statutory holidays introduced, with most workers working 9-10 hours
problems:
- factories remained dangerous and unhealthy (too few inspections)
34
what were urban working conditions like under communists?
- lenin = 1920 rabkrin (workers and peasants inspectorate) introduced but mainly just discussion and power over workers lay with lenin
- stalin = worsened with an increase in hours (10-12), low pay and harsh punishmentsbut not meeting targets or seen as "wreckers"
- improvements = 1939, due to success of first 5 year plan = average working day went down to 7 hours and bonus schemes introduced
- khrushchev = less opposition and punishments for workers and 7 hour day became normal
35
what were the causes and effects of the 1891 (alexander III) famine?
- causes = poor weather, medele'ev tariff (higher taxes on consumer goods) meant peasants sold more grain to pay for tax
- over 350,000 died
- vyshenegradskii blamed and replaced witte as finance minister
36
what were the causes and effects of the 1914-8 (nick II then lenin) famine?
- distribution to trade, transport and food supplies to soldiers
- treaty of brest-litovsk (peace treaty) made situation worse as grain producing land in ukraine was lost
37
what were the causes and effects of the 1921 (lenin) famine?
- poor winter and then drought
- destruction of infrastructure and some railways due to civil war = transporting food worse
- grain requisitioning due to war communism
38
what were the causes and effects of the 1932-4 (stalin) famine?
- poor weather made worse by collectivisation and forced grain requisitioning
- stalin's actions made situation worse (i.e. death penalty for stealing (hoarding) grain)
39
what were the similarities and differences between tsars and communists and causing famines?
- both directed more food away from countryside to feed urban population (seen as needed for industry) = shortages
- tsars (witte under nick II) and stalin both exported grain to finance industry = made food shortages worse
40
what was the impact of world war 2 on famines?
- overall food and diet of workers worsened, but food production increased by late 1930s
- during war, collectivisation relaxed and fewer restrictions = outputs rose
- there was another famine during 1947
41
how did khrushchev cause a famine?
- virgin land scheme failed to increase production enough and food still had to be imported
- situation made worse by shortages in 1962/3
42
how was voting approached by tsars?
- zemstva created in 1864 to represent local people. members elected but chosen based on property qualifications (land owners, wealthier peasants etc)
- national duma from 1905 = elections but electoral college system meant restrictions were put on votes of peasants and workers
43
how was voting approached by communists?
- elections did exist but limited (no other parties allowed)
- elections to sovnarkom (council of people's commissars/minsters) were though a layered systems with village soviets at bottom
- central committee elected but only met twice a year
44
what were political parties and pressure groups like under the tsars?
- political parties not allowed before 1905, they did exist and were monitored and spied on by okhrana (e.g populists, people's will, srs, sds, liberals etc)
- limited power, some present in national duma after 1905 (e.g. kadets, srs, sds, octoberists)
- trade unions allowed after 1905 and organised strikes (although not officially allowed)
- soviets appeared after 1905 (workers council) = tolerated by tsars and even became dual authority with prov gov
45
what were political parties and pressure groups like under the communists?
- only russian communist party allowed to exist
- trade unions still existed but controlled and integrated into communist system
- no real representation as all was controlled by communists (fear of opposition)
46
what was censorship like under both tsars and communists?
- both controlled press, media and publications to remove and restrict opposition thoughts or alternatives to tsarist or communist regimes
- nick II = some relaxation (e.g kopek newspaper = voice for workers)
- communists created own material (cinema, books etc) and instructed writers, artists etc to create "socialist realism"
- khrushchev = some relaxation for writers and artists but main newspapers (e.g. pravda) still communist controlled
47
how was religion approached under the tsars?
- russian orthodox church controlled religion and used to maintain power of tsar
- other religious groups tolerated but encouraged to convert
48
how was religion approached under the communists?
- overall restrictions and repression
- "decree on the separation of the church from the state and school from church" = withdraw state subsidies and prevented religious groups from owning property (e.g church property confiscated during civil war)
- stalin closed more churches and some clergy included in purges
- 1958 (khrushchev) = religion declared unscientific and a detriment to russia
49
what were the changes and continuity to society between the tsars and communists?
- both wanted to increase industrial output and compete with western powers
- often initiated after key events (wars) whereby fears of inefficiency were also connected to fear regarding defense = industry needed
- desire to make russia great country again and challenge success of west and capitalism
- significant times for industrialisation = witte's great spurt, nep and 5 year plans
- agriculture developed at a slower pace (some improvements under alex II and nick II and stalin's collectivisation etc). but this was to serve needs of workers
- industrial output did increase (especially under stalin) but often success wasn't shared with workers and peasants. wages low, hours long, famines, severe punishments and restrictions
- living standards remained low
