The Impact of the Cultural Revolution 1966-76

Question 1

How did the early stages of the Cultural Revolution damage industrial production 1966-69 (4)?

Answer 1

1) Workers had to start their working days with meetings, where they would recite quotations from Mao, damaging production.
2) Many managers and technicians were purged and replaced by Revolutionary Committees, making management less professional and damaging efficiency.
3) There were shortages of raw materials and equipment in factories, mines and processing plants due to the PLA requisitioning trains to transport the Red Guard across China.
4) With workers drawn into political struggles, especially in cities, strikes shut down factories, docks and railway depots.

Question 2

By how much did industrial production fall by in 1967?

Answer 2

Industrial production in 1967 fell by 13% compared to that of 1966.

Question 3

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on agricultural production, and why (2)?

Answer 3

The Cultural Revolution was much less damaging to agricultural production, with grain production increasing in 1966, 1967 and 1969, showing that the Cultural Revolution was largely an urban phenomenon.
1) Away from big cities, in remote areas, there was little Red Guard activity and peasants were not drawn into power struggles.
2) In rural areas close to cities, peasants were likely to get involved with revolutionary action. Nearly 2/3 of rural disorder reported (1966-1968) were within 30 miles of large cities. The countryside around Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou witnessed the most revolutionary activity.

Question 4

How did Deng Xiaoping and Zhou Enlai improve the economy in the early 1970s (3)?

Answer 4

1) Many skilled experts who had been purged at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution were rehabilitated.
2) Schools and universities began to reopen.
3) As China lagged behind the more technologically advanced nations, the PRC began to sign ‘technology transfer’ deals with foreign governments and companies, helping to modernise its industries, especially the energy and aerospace industries.

Question 5

What was the ‘technology transfer’ programme, and give 3 examples of technology transfers?

Answer 5

A programme where China would purchase equipment and employ foreign experts from foreign governments and companies.
1) Nippon Steel Corporation of Japan built a complete steel plant in Wuhan in 1974.
2) Rolls Royce of Great Britain signed a $100 million agreement to build jet engines in China in 1975.
3) 13 modern chemical fertilizer plants were built using foreign equipment and expertise.

Question 6

When the Gang of Four gained the upper hand in the economic struggle in 1975-76, what did they push for (4), and what was the effect on the economy?

Answer 6

The Gang of Four pushed for:
1) The expansion of communes.
2) The removal of incentive payments and private plots.
3) An end to ‘technology transfer’.
4) ‘Learn from Dazhai’: Dazhai was said to demonstrate how communes were the model for economic/social development through self reliance and mass mobilisation.
5) The conflict between the Gang of Four and the pragmatists in 1976 meant that no economic growth was recorded in 1976

Question 7

When did attacks on teachers start in Beijing during the the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 7

18 June 1966.

Question 8

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on schools/universities (5)?

Answer 8

1) In the summer of 1966, all schools were closed. Whilst some primary and middle schools opened again in 1967, most high schools were closed until 1971.
2) Some universities reopened in 1970, but only selecting based on class background. Many universities did not resume teaching until 1977.
3) Many village schools remained open throughout the Cultural Revolution, whereas in the cities, the disruption was more widespread and long lasting.
4) The Cultural Revolution saw changes to the curriculum, with teaching having to reflect the new political reality.
5) Schools were required to include physical labour alongside study from books.

Question 9

How many young people were sent to the countryside to ‘learn from the peasants’ 1968-76?

Answer 9

Over 12 million young people.

Question 10

What were ‘barefoot doctors’?

Answer 10

Young urban paramedics with 6-12 months of training, who were employed in the rural healthcare system.

Question 11

What is China’s ‘Lost Generation’?

Answer 11

The closing of high schools and universities during the CR denied many from gaining the qualifications needed for career advancement. Many were even unable to resume their education after schools reopened, disadvantaging them in the labour market. These youths are China’s ‘Lost Generation’.

Question 12

What was the impact of the purge of the Red Guards on the youth (2)?

Answer 12

1) The purge of the Red Guards and the sending of millions of youths to the countryside led to many feeling disillusioned. Their experiences in the countryside, seeing the poverty of the peasants and the hollowness of propaganda, led to distrust with the political system and Mao.
2) Many regarded their time in the countryside as a formative experience, giving them an opportunity to reflect and debate the future of China. Many who returned from the countryside in the late 1970s used their experience to formulate ideas for reforms, needed after Mao’s death.

Question 13

How did the Cultural Revolution impact birth control/family planning?

Answer 13

Birth control as a national policy was virtually abandoned in 1966, due to its links with economic planning, which Mao regarded as bureaucratic.

Question 14

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on rural health services (5)?

Answer 14

1) Greater access to contraception and improved midwifery services for peasant women.
2) Many urban doctors were sent to rural areas and ‘barefoot doctors’ were introduced.
3) These new doctors provided basic first aid, administered vaccinations, and were responsible for identifying public health hazards.
4) New rural clinics were opened, and in 1968, a rural co-operative medical scheme was extended across all areas.
5) These improvements in health care were not free, and were paid for partially by the state, individuals and communes.

Question 15

When was birth control reinstated as a key element of economic planning, and what were the methods used by the PRC to control the population size?

Answer 15

Birth control was reinstated as a key element of economic planning in 1972. However, at Mao’s insistence, there was no limit on family sizes. Propaganda and exhortation were the methods used by the PRC to control the population.

Question 16

How was religion attacked during the Cultural Revolution (4)?

Answer 16

1) Religion was regarded as ‘old thinking’ and associated with foreign influences, making it liable for attack. The Red Guards entered churches, temples and shrines, destroying their artifacts.
2) Priests, nuns and monks were subject to attacks and violence, and sent to labour camps for ‘re-education through labour’.
3) After 1966, Red Guards destroyed people’s own private shrines, books or artifacts.
4) Although there was no ban on religion, it was still too dangerous for individuals and congregations to continue as before. This forced religion underground.

Question 17

How did Mao’s cult of personality transform into a quasi-religion during the Cultural Revolution (4)?

Answer 17

1) Mao’s portrait was in public places, factories, offices, schools and in people’s homes, where he was placed at the centre of the family alter.
2) People bowed to Mao’s portrait before and after work.
3) Mao’s words were seen as holy, with Red Guards waving copies of the ‘Little Red Book’ and reciting quotations on marches and at study sessions.
4) Many Red Guards visited Mao’s birthplace in Shaoshan (in Hunan province), almost like a pilgrimage.

Question 18

What was the significance of the ‘Little Red Book’ on Mao’s cult of personality (3)?

Answer 18

1) Over 1 billion copies were produced 1964-76, and translated, printed and distributed in many foreign language editions.
2) It was required reading for all Chinese during the Cultural Revolution.
3) Workplaces and army units held study sessions on the book, which all employees were required to attend.

Question 19

How did the anti-Confucius campaign attack ‘old thinking’ (2), and how successful was it?

Answer 19

1) Confucius was condemned as a spokesman of the slave-owning aristocracy and a reactionary obstacle to progress in 5th Century China.
2) There were mass rallies, study sessions and a propaganda campaign to denounce Confucius and those identified as ‘Confuciuses of contemporary China’ (namely Lin Biao + the pragmatists).
3) The attack on Confucius actually led to a revival of the study of his teachings at universities, as professors were able to argue that students should not be expected to condemn what they do not understand.

Question 20

How were the private lives of urban residents impacted by the Cultural Revolution (5)?

Answer 20

1) Cities, such as Shanghai and Beijing, came to a standstill, due to factional fighting and Red Guard activities. In 1967, food supplies in Shanghai fell dangerously low as the city was consumed by street fighting.
2) The Red Guards were left to interpret what to attack in the ‘Four Olds’ campaign, leading to arbitrary attacks. Pedestrians could be attacked for wearing the ‘wrong’ clothes, having the ‘wrong’ hairstyle or for walking their dog.
3) Private homes were invaded and ransacked by Red Guards, with antiques, valuables, instruments, photographs, paintings, etc. were confiscated and destroyed if they were deemed bourgeois.
4) Public spaces, such as theatres, sports stadiums and town squares became venues for public killings. E.g. in Daxing, 300 people were clubbed to death in the town square in a 2 day period.
5) Hundreds of thousands were killed and beaten. Maybe even millions were imprisoned on the flimsiest of evidence, without the opportunity to defend themselves in court, often arbitrarily.

Question 21

What proportion of Beijing homes were searched by Red Guard units in the autumn of 1966?

Answer 21

Between 1/4 and 1/3 of all homes in Beijing were entered and searched by Red Guards in the autumn of 1966.

Question 22

How many died in Guangxi province as a result of the Cultural Revolution 1966-76?

Answer 22

Around 67,000 deaths.

Question 23

What is the death toll of the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 23

Estimates vary greatly, ranging from 500,000 to 2 million.

Question 24

How many intellectuals were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 24

At the Gang of Four’s trial in 1980-81, it was claimed 2600 writers and artists, 142,000 teachers, 53,000 scientists and technicians and 500 professors had been ‘falsely charged and persecuted’.

Question 25

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on culture (7)?

Answer 25

1) Scholars, writers, intellectuals and teachers were persecuted, imprisoned or killed, with Jiang Qing the supreme authority over cultural life.
2) Theatres and cinemas were only allowed to put on ‘revolutionary’ plays and films. Operas and ballets had to be personally approved by Jiang Qing.
3) Traditional and foreign literature was banned, and the possession of such material was evidence of a counter-revolutionary crime.
4) Jiang Qing approved 8 ‘model plays’. No other plays, operas or ballets could be performed.
5) Chinese orchestras were forbidden from performing Western music. Only arts that served a propaganda purpose or fed Mao’s personality cult were allowed.
6) It was considered counter-revolutionary to show respect for the elderly or one’s parents.
7) Libraries and museums were closed, and their valuable collections damaged or dispersed by Red Guards. Books were piled high in town squares and set on fire.

Question 26

How successful was the Cultural Revolution in eradicating old thoughts/customs?

Answer 26

1) The Cultural Revolution was not very successful in eradicating old thoughts and customs.
2) An example of this failure is the 1976 Festival of the Dead ceremony in Tiananmen Square, following Zhou Enlai’s death, attended by tens of thousands. The Festival of the Dead originated from the Confucian idea of reverence for ancestors.

Question 27

What did journalist Frank Tillman Durdin, of the New York Times, conclude and note about the campaign against the ‘Four Olds’ in 1971 (6)?

Answer 27

Durdin concluded that the ‘Four Olds’ campaign had had a ‘sweeping effect’, noting that:
1) In homes, there were no family alters or tributes to ancestors.
2) Religious buildings had been turned into something else, e.g. into schools or warehouses.
3) Women no longer wore traditional dress, but in the same style as men. They did not use makeup.
4) No old literature or Western books were on sale.
5) No traditional operas, music or plays were performed.
6) The only old festival still observed was the Chinese New Year.