The Media Flashcards
(109 cards)
1
Q
What did Vir, Hall and Foye find about representations of nationality?
A
The BBC was seen to have a more Southern English bias, and more interest in its English viewers than the wider nations. Also, those living in the highlands feel under-represented in the media.
2
Q
What did Mulhern say about representations of nationality?
A
Critical of the media portrayal of the Irish and says that the Irish are stereotyped in 2 ways: homesick and drinking bad Guinness, or too successful to be homesick. E.g. Mrs Brown.
3
Q
What did Graham say about representations of Nationality?
A
The media can sometimes force other nationalities into programmes, leading to tokenism. Also, the portrayals of the Welsh as ‘thick’ e.g. in Gavin and Stacy.
4
Q
What did Van Dijk find about traditional representations of ethnicity?
A
Ethnic groups are presented in 5 ways: criminals, abnormal, a threat, dependant, unimportant.
5
Q
What did Nahdi find about traditional representations of ethnicity?
A
Portrayals of Muslims were particularly negative, often presented as strange or different.
6
Q
What did Ligali find about changing representations of ethnicity?
A
The media has been accused of being institutionally racist due to less reporting incidences of murders of ethnic minority groups.
7
Q
What did Husband and Hartman find about traditional representations of ethnicity?
A
Media sees ‘foreigners’ (especially black people) as inferior.
8
Q
What did the Children Now -Fair Play study say about the traditional representations of ethnicity?
A
ethnic minorities are stereotyped in video games - 86% of heroes are white and 8/10 sport characters are black.
9
Q
What did Malik find about changing representations of ethnicity?
A
Broadcasters are guilty of tokenism and stereotyping in the media. This is an issue as a result of a lack of Black and Asian people in positions of power within the media, e.g. channel 4. However, did note that ethnic minorities are increasingly more included.
10
Q
What did Barker find about changing representations of ethnicity?
A
Eastenders can be seen to be changing the way ethnic minorities are presented in its storylines. There are now a range of asian and black characters that represent the demographic of London much better. However, soap operas have been criticised for stereotyping.
11
Q
What did Hall find about changing representations of ethnicity?
A
‘The Whites of their eyes’. There has been a key shift from overt racism to inferential racism, which is where unconsciously the media refers to presumptions of certain ethnic groups, which allows stereotypes to be based on this.
12
Q
What did Moghissi find about changing representations of ethnicity?
A
Muslims are huddled together in the media. Since 9/11 a moral panic has been created around Islam.
13
Q
What did Billington find about traditional views of masculinity and femininity?
A
Men and women are presented very stereotypically in the media. Women are presented as subordinate, submissive and passive whereas men are presented as dominant, aggressive and heroes.
14
Q
What did Milestone and Meyer find about traditional views of masculinity and femininity?
A
Dominant notions of essential gender differences and ideological representation of masculinities and femininities continue to perpetuate inequalities within the media.
15
Q
What did Gauntlett find about traditional and changing views of masculinity and femininity?
A
Dominant notions of essential gender differences and ideological representation of masculinities and femininities continue to perpetuate inequalities within the media. In contemporary films, men often have a more sensitive and thoughtful side and women are presented as ‘tougher’. Additionally, found that magazines aimed at young women emphasised that women should be able to do their own thing and be themselves. Female pop stars, such as Lady GaGa, promoted financial and emotional independence through their lyrics. Also, in Friends, male and female representations have become more equal. However, this equality in the media has plateaued.
16
Q
What did Easthorpe find about traditional and changing views of masculinity and femininity?
A
Many forms of media transmit the idea that masculinity is based on strength, aggression, competition and violence is biologically determined and therefore a natural goal for boys to achieve. 1980s saw a changing representation of masculinity, where men were presented as emotionally vulnerable, in touch with their emotions, treating women as equals, care about their appearance and active fatherhood is an experience worth having.
17
Q
What did Tunstall say about traditional views of femininity
A
The media generally ignores the fact that women go out to work, instead focussing on their domestic, sexual and marital activities.
18
Q
What did Tuchman examine about
A
argued the narrow range of roles for women lead to their ‘symbolic annihilation’ in the media. This refers to the idea where the media omit, trivialise or condemn certain groups that are not socially valued.
19
Q
What did Ferguson find about traditional views of femininity?
A
‘Cult of femininity’ presented in women’s magazines.
20
Q
What did Glascock find about traditional views of femininity?
A
Studies the idea that when portrayed as violent, men are more often portrayed as physically aggressive, whereas females more verbally aggressive. Found that these difference were also prominent behind the camera, where males predominate and was found related to on-camera demographics.
21
Q
What did Westwood find about changing views of femininity?
A
Refers to ‘transgressive female roles’, women are presented in a way that means they are breaking hegemonic social and moral constraints/gender roles. This can be seen to empower women. They are being presented as norm breaking e.g. drinking and being sexually promiscuous.
22
Q
What did Gill find about changing views of femininity?
A
The depiction of women has changed from women as passive objects of the male gaze, to women being more active, independent and sexually powerful.
23
Q
What did Nairn find about traditional and changing representations of the upper class?
A
The media representation of the monarchy, they have been represented as a family that are ‘like us but not like us’ and the narrative of their lives is presented as a soap opera. Also states that the representation of the family reinforces a sense of national identity. Media representations of the upper class have been traditionally positive, but this has changed over years. For example, Prince Charles was meeting with politicians which journalists found inappropriate as the Royal Family are meant to be neutral.
24
Q
What did Saunders say about traditional representation of the middle class?
A
Conspicuous consumption, the middle class are targeted by corporate companies.
25
What did Mertens and D'Haenes say about traditional representation of the middle class?
The digital divide, the middle class use technology for career development and knowledge, whereas the working class use it for entertainment.
26
What did Leech say about traditional representation of the middle class?
The middle class are presented as the ‘ideal’ lifestyle in the media and advertising developed the idea of the ‘cereal packet family’ to describe the image that is sold to us as desirable.
27
What did Reiner say about changing representations of the upper class?
Recent media representations of wealthy people are being used to show examples of hard work, success and meritocracy. The media states that their successes are celebrated by the media and audiences are encouraged to identify with a culture of consumption and materialism. (think about what Neo-Marxists would say).
28
What did Giddens say about changing representations of the upper class?
There are three types of upper class: traditional upper class, entrepreneurial super rich and jet-set pop aristocracy.
29
What did Newman say about traditional representations of the working class?
In the media, the working class are stereotyped and labelled in an unflattering and pitying light. News stories tend to label the working class as being a problem in society, creating moral panics.
30
What did Devereux say about traditional representations of the working class?
Portrayals of the working class are divided into two categories: positive = seen as happy and a deserving poor, negative = welfare benefits.
31
What did Jones say about traditional representations of the working class?
‘Chavs: The Demonization of the Working Class’. ‘Chavtainment’ when the media negatively portrays the working class.
32
What did Dodd and Dodd say about changing representations of the working class?
Examined Eastenders and suggested that the show presents a traditional notion of working class communities, but that this does not reflect a modern day working class culture. However, the show has introduced realism when approaching severe issues such as rape and drug abuse.
33
What did Price say about changing representations of the underclass?
Developed the concept of ‘poverty porn’ to describe shows like Benefits Street. This refers to the idea of the media exploiting the participants and their lifestyles in order to shock and entertain audiences. Carried out discourse analysis and found that Benefit Street does have narratives that present people as decent and compassionate captured by an unfair society.
34
What did Baumberg et al find about traditional representations of the underclass?
Found common language used to describe benefits as ‘undeserving’: fraud and dishonesty, dependency, lack of effort, outsider status. Also found a disproportionate focus on benefit fraud.
35
What did Golding and Middleton say about the underclass?
Examined the notion of moral panics surrounding the underclass - carried out content analysis and discovered that welfare issues were not discussed unless they were linked to other social issues, such as crime, fraud or sex.
36
What did Hall find about traditional representations of the working class?
Whatever the intended meaning of certain forms of media is, they will be interpreted differently based on how people use their own values and views to decode it.
37
What did Heintz-Knowles say about traditional representations of childhood?
The media tends to portray stereotypical views of children:
Children are motivated by peer relationships and romance
Entertainment hardly shows children grappling with important issues
Anti-social behaviour
Minority ethnic groups are under-represented
Girls are twice as likely than boys to show affection
Boys are more likely to use physical aggression
38
What did Heinzt-Knowles say about changing representations of childhood?
TV dramas now show a more realistic portrayal of issues from a child’s point of view e.g. Tracy Beaker.
39
What did Postman say about changing representations of childhood?
The idea of childhood has begun to disappear as children interact more with the media. He argues that children are sexualised in the media and it creates a world where adults and children share the same sports, music, language and literature. The internet contributes to this and causes children and youths to be exposed to adult content.
40
What did Griffin say about traditional representations of youth?
The media portray youths negatively and portray them as a social problem in three ways:
Dysfunctional, deviant and suffering a deficit.
41
What did Wayne say about traditional representations of youth?
82% of 286 stories focussed on young people as either perpetrators or victims of crime. Wayne argues that the media ignores stories about how young people are affected by problems in housing, education, health, unemployment, parental abuse and politics.
42
What did the Women in Journalism study find about traditional representations of youth?
‘Hoodies or Altar Boys’. Found:
Negative language used to describe them e.g. thugs
More stories about teens and crime than any other topic
Few stories about teen boys in good light
Reality Tv was seen to portray them more fairly
Teenagers were wary of other teenagers.
43
What did Kelly say about traditional representations of youth?
3 major types of representation: dangerous, need of protection and immature.
44
What did Cohen find about traditional representations of youth?
Study on folk devils and moral panics clearly shows how the media depicted youth as dangerous and deviant.
45
What did Osgerby say about changing representations of youth?
Changes of media representations of youth reflect wider cultural developments and ‘mirror the spirit of the times’. I.e. At some point in time fighting for social change could be seen as deviant.
46
What did Lee et al find about changing representations of the elderly?
Found that old people only appear in 15% of advertisements, but of this 15%, more than 90% were positive - portraying elderly people as ‘golden agers’. Significant gender differences in the way old people are represented in the media e.g. old men are more likely to be associated with a higher status.
47
What did Biggs say about changing representations of the elderly?
Both change and continuity in the representations of old people: a large number of older people are now appearing in soap operas, negative depictions of elderly in sitcoms, representations of older people as more active.
48
What did Carrigan and Szmigin say about changing representations of the elderly?
Researched the ‘grey pound’ , and found that advertisers were now targeting older people as consumers because of this.
49
What did Blaikie say about changing representations of the elderly?
Attitudes to retirement have changed and stereotypes of old age have broken down - claims that this is partly due to consumer culture and advertising. The retired are now considered an important consumer group who are targeted with a range of products and services through the media.
50
What have Age Concern say about traditional representations of the elderly?
Old people were disproportionately represented as: a burden, mentally challenged and grumpy.
51
What did Landis say about traditional representations of the elderly?
Identified a number of stereotypes in representations of older people. They were depicted as one dimensional:
E.g. grumpy old man, feisty old woman, depressed or lonely, busybody, mentally deficient, sickly old person, having wisdom or having a second childhood.
52
What did Cuddy and Fiske say about traditional representations of the elderly?
In the US, TV programmes portrayed just 1.5% of their characters as elderly. Usually played minor roles and were used as a form of comedy. Depicted their mental, physical and sexual capacities as ineffective.
53
What did Milner et al found about traditional representations of the elderly?
The media do not portray a balanced view of ageing . To do this they would need to present the challenges of getting older alongside the more positive opportunities associated with ageing.
54
What are Marxists view of the media?
The media is part of the superstructure which is influenced and controlled by the economic base (infrastructure).
55
What is the superstructure?
The superstructure refers o the institutions of society e.g. the media, family, education, religion.
56
What is the infrastructure?
The infrastructure is owned by the Bourgeoisie, meaning that media and other institutions are designed in a way that benefits them. For example, the superstructure helps the ruling class as it transmits ruling class ideologies.
57
What did Milliband say about the media?
Argued that the ruling class used the media to control society by creating a false picture of reality, that presents capitalism in a positive way. He suggests that the media is the NEW OPIUM OF THE PEOPLE, which replaces religion. It numbs our senses and produces an illusion of happiness that is not real.
58
What did Bagdikian note about the media?
Media ownership was concentrated into 7 corporations.
59
What did Curran find about the media?
Found evidence of owners directly manipulating media content. In the 20th century, lots more conservative supporting newspapers. The media promotes political bias. For example, Rupert Murdoch.
60
What did Doyle argue about the media?
- All points of view need to be heard if society is to be truly democratic
- Abuses of power and influence by elites need to be monitored by a free media.
Doyle argues that too much media concentration of media ownership is dangerous and unhealthy - can make or break political careers - have considerable influence over public opinion.
61
What do Neo-Marxists say about media representations?
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The media is playing a key role in strengthening the ruling-class hegemony/dominance.
Certain groups threaten the position of the dominant group, and are therefore marginalised through media portrayals and stereotypes in a negative way.
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62
What did the Sutton Trust find about media representations?
Found that journalists and broadcasters tend to be white, middle class, male and more than 50% attend private schools. Unconsciously produce content that promotes ruling-class norms, values and ideologies.
63
What did Gilroy argue about the media?
Gilroy argues that black crime, particularly in the 1970s was a form of political resistance against a repressive, racist state.
64
What themes did the Glasgow Media Group find about the media representation of social groups?
Immigrants are presented as burdens on welfare.
Exaggerating the numbers of people immigrating to the UK.
Asylum seekers are seen as threats and criminals.
Ignores the benefits of immigration and how Western nations can be responsible for migration.
The mixing together (conflation) of forces immigrants and economic immigrants.
Need for 'immigration control'.
Problems faces by asylum seekers are ignored.
65
What did the Glasgow Media Group conclude?
Found that sensationalised and inaccurate media presentations of different social groups, legitimise (and justify) political action which can have negative consequences on refugees, migrants and those from the lowest social classes.
66
What are Pluralists perception of the media?
Pluralists believe that the media is driven by audiences as media corporations aim to present what audiences want to see. They claim that media representations are unproblematic as they reflect society and what people want to see. Choice and reflective. Social media offers another forum in which audiences can access a range of views. Self regulation.
67
What has the media been labelled as?
The 'Fourth Estate of Democracy', following the government, the courts and the churches.
68
What did Whale argue about the media? Pluralism
What we see in the media is determined by its readers/audience. Suggests that if presentations of groups were unfair, we would not continue to use those media products.
69
What did Williams say about the media? Pluralism
Journalists are vital in a democratic society as they provide the general public with the information required to participate in political and cultural life. Free press is vital for democracy to work.
70
What did Halloran say about the media? Pluralism
Audiences are able to manipulate the media as they have plural views of society (meaning several views that influence)
71
What did Curran and Guevitch say about the media? Pluralism
Audiences are capable of conforming and accepting these representations, or rejecting them.
72
What did Mulvey find about the media? Feminist
The concept of the male gaze as an instrument of male spectatorship. Carried out a semiology.
73
What did Lauzen find about the media? Feminist
Women account for only 16% of all directors, executive producers, writers, cinematographers and editors.
74
What did Wolf say about the media? Feminist
The beauty myth - the notion that women feel pressure to conform to the male image of what a woman should look like. Claims that the media takes these images and presents them as ‘ideal’. These ideologies ensure that women develop a ‘false consciousness’.
75
What did Tuchman say about the media? Feminist
‘Symbolic annihilation’ when discussing media representations of women.
76
What did Beechey say about the media? Feminist
The Reserve Army of Labour. The media encourages women to stay at home and take care of their husbands. This keeps the men in good running order to go and work and benefit capitalism, but also means that women are available to work when capitalism needs them.
77
What recent conclusions did Whelehan make about the media? Feminist
Men’s magazines override the message of feminism. Whelehan states that these magazines promote a ‘laddish culture’ where women are objectified.
78
What recent conclusions did McRobbie make about the media? Feminist
Magazines do have an impact on the identity of their readers.
79
What did McLuhan say about the media? Postmodernism
The notion of the ‘global village’ to describe the idea that information would eventually be passed electronically due to new patterns of communication. States that globalisation has had a direct impact on media representations and offers people choice. Progressions in digital communication and the creation of a global village means that everybody lives in the utmost proximity, with instant transfer of information.
80
What did Strinati say about the media? Postmodernism
Media saturation. Capitalist countries are now media saturated and people engage with a range of products. The media plays a key role when people are constructing their identities. Due to diversity offered by the media there are no traditional representations of social groups, which means there has been an ‘erosion of identity’. Identity is no longer constrained. Boundaries have blurred between groups of people.
81
What did Baurdrillard say about the media? Postmodernism
Media saturation has altered reality and acknowledges that this can have negative impacts on society. Media saturation has made it difficult for people to distinguish what is reality and what is fiction. People are so engulfed by communication which has led to a state of ‘hyper reality’. Physical reality has become blended with artificial intelligence - some people are more involved with the ‘hyperreal’ world. There is so much information in the world that the media has to simplify it for audiences. ‘Simulacra’ when discussing virtual reality, that can lead to a more satisfying version of the physical world.
82
What did Turkle say about the media? Postmoderism
People use social media to escape. We can edit and delete our conversations on social media so it gives us more control over how people see us.
83
What did Watson say about the media? Postmodernism
‘Superficiality not depth’, the loss of authentic community and no true sense of self.
84
What did Packard say about the direct effects of media?
The magic bullet theory, the media is like a syringe that ‘injects’ its message into the audience - directed at the impact of advertising.
85
What did Newson say about the direct effects of media?
Children’s exposure to media violence has a desensitising effect that makes it more likely to commit acts of violence in reality. The effect is gradual and subtle and continued exposure to violence in films over years desensitises children. This research led to increased censorship e.g. age certificates.
86
What was Bandura's study about the direct effects of media?
The BoBo Doll experiment, children can act more aggressively when given the opportunity to do so. The children watched videos of adults attacking the doll, which the children imitated.
87
How did Anderson's study support the direct effect model?
Research into the direct effect of music on an audience. Studied the effect of violent song lyrics. Found a clear pattern of increased aggressive thoughts and feelings of hostility following on from listening to violent song lyrics. E.g. ‘Shoot em Up’ by Cypress Hill.
88
How did Hall's study support the direct effects model?
The effect of sexualised song lyrics on young audiences.
This form of media content can teach young men to be sexually aggressive and treat women as objects while teaching young women that their value to society is to provide sexual pleasure for others.
89
How did Hardcastle's study support the direct effects model?
Examined the positive reference to alcohol within lyrics which has a potential impact on drinking behaviours.
90
What did Fesback and Singer say about the positive aspects of the direct effects model?
Violence can provide a safe outlet for people’s aggressive tendencies - known as CATHARSIS. Watching an exciting film releases aggressive energy.
91
What did Young say about the positive aspects of the direct effects model?
Two responses to viewing violence in the media
Seeing violence makes people more aware of its consequences and so less inclined to commit violent acts. It has a sensitising effect
However, if violence is viewed in a more permissible way, the behaviour can become desensitizing.
92
What did Katz and Lazarsfeld say about the indirect effects of the media?
Personal relationships result in people modifying or rejecting media messages. Talk about ‘opinion leaders’ who influence people’s opinions.
Suggest that the media goes through two stages before reaching its audiences
The opinion leader is exposed to the media content
Those who respect the opinion leader internalise their interpretations of that content and transmit those messages forward.
93
What did Gramsci say about the cultural effects model?
Media content contains strong, ideological messages that reflect the values of those who own, control and produce the media. The values of the rich and powerful come to be unconsciously shared by most people - called hegemony. Does note that the audience must consent, and the media has an important role in gaining this consent.
94
What did Zillman say about the active audience model?
A person’s mood may impact media choice. E.g. stress causing he selection of relaxing content. The same TV programme may satisfy the needs of individuals differently.
95
What did McQuail say about the active audience model?
The common sense reasons for media use are:
| Information, personal identity, integration and social integration and entertainment.
96
What did Hall say about the active audience approach to the media?
Audiences are active not passive. Importance of coding and decoding. Three different ways of recording media messages:
dominant/hegemonic reading: takes the intended message
Negotiated reading: mixes the additional message with additional messages so the meaning is slightly altered.
Oppositional reading: the audience constructs a meaning that is completely different to its intended meaning.
Concludes that a passive audience is more likely to accept the message.
97
What did Klapper say about the selective filter model in regards to the media?
The selective filter model, the media reinforces already held beliefs and attitudes. 3 filters:
Selective exposure: audience must choose to listen
Selective perception: the audience may not accept the message
Selective retention: the messages have to ‘stick’ in the mind of those who have accessed media content - people have a tendency to remember things that they agree with.
98
What was Cohen (1972) research on moral panics?
The media created moral panics of The Mods and The Rockers, by exagerating a slight disgreement between the two groups, causing a full-blown riot. This is an example of deviancy amplification.
99
What was Cohen's research on moral panics (2002)?
Recent moral panics in the media. He studied media responses to: Steven Lawrence murder, child abuse scandals, welfare cheats and single mothers, refugees and asylum seekers.
100
What was Goode and Ben Yehuda's research on moral panics?
They argue that there are five elements present in a moral panic. These are: concern, hostility, consensus, disproportionality and volatility.
101
What was Furedi's research on moral panics?
Argues that moral panics arise when society fails to adapt to dramatic social changes. Argues that moral panics reflect wider concerns that the older generation hold about the nature of society. The older generation believe the media is responsible for the loss of traditional norms and values.
102
What was McRobbie's research on moral panics?
Because there are now so many moral panics, their effect has changed. Moral panics are no longer about social control but rather about the fear of being out of control.
103
What was McRobbie's and Thornton's research on moral panics?
Some parts of the media now have a good understanding of how deviancy amplification works, so that moral panics were once the unintended outcome of journalism, is now the goal. This means that attempts are now made by the media to create stories that aim to have a form of shock, rather than because there is an actual moral outrage.
104
What did Wilkins find about the Deviancy Amplification Spiral?
Deviant act is committed. Problem group is identified, known as ‘folk devils’. A public desire to be kept informed emerges. Publicity glamorises the deviant behaviour and makes it attractive to some, so more people engage in it. Moral panic develops and public concern emerges about the real ‘threat’. Reporting continues and demand for action occurs. Law enforcement focuses on the threat, and pressure for harsher punishment. The public feel that their fear is justified. The media profits more from the whole spiral and continues to repeat the deviance.
105
Cohen's findings in relation to Marxism and moral panics?
Studying moral panics allows us to see ways we are being manipulated into taking some things seriously and other things not seriously enough.
106
Hall's findings in relation to studying Marxism and moral panics?
The ruling class defines what is ‘deviance’ and therefore decide who the ‘folk devils’ are. E.g. the concept of ‘muggings’ was developed to encourage a panic. They state that this has been applied to young, black, working class males with the aim of causing a division amongst the white and black working class. This division prevents unification, therefore preventing a revolution.
107
Miller and Reilley's findings in relation to Marxism and moral panics?
Moral panics often ‘soften up’ public opinions on issues so that people are prepared to accept repressive social controls (e.g. new laws) as solutions to particular problems. They argue that this is a way of the ruling class gaining more control over the masses.
108
Becker's findings in relation to Interactionism and moral panics?
Successful application of a label frequently has the effect of confirming the individual as deviant, both to themselves and others. This may block off participation in ‘normal’ society. E.g. find it hard to find work so they join other deviants., resulting in the increased involvement in deviant behaviour.
109
What did Whannel find? Masculinity
Study to support ideas about the new man and metrosexuality. Looks at David Backham, and says that presentations of him are contradictory. Media representations of him are fluid, his good looks and competative spirit mark him out as a traditional man. However, these representations have been balanced with emotional commitment and time spent with his family. These stresses metrosexuality.
