The Middle Pleistocene and Neanderthals

Question 1

Homo erectus

Answer 1

Oldest hominin species to be found outside Africa

Question 2

How does space affect evolutionary forces?

Answer 2

Strongly affected by distance
- Gene flow: the further away two populations are, the lower the chances of reproducing with those individuals SO increased distance results in decrease in gene flow
- ability for species to differentiate (morphologically) from each other because higher frequency of certain alleles (very quickly) which eventually leads to speciation (by dispersion and differences in morphology)

Question 3

Some population of Homo erectus was likely the common ancestor of Homo sapiens and H. neanderthalensis

Answer 3

Some paleoanthropologists recognize a transitional species between erectus on one hand and the Neanderthals and H. sapiens on the other

• H. heidelbergensis!!!!

Question 4

Schoningen is an Archaeological site in Germany dated to ca. 400 ka

Answer 4

• This site preserves long wooden spears
• Butchered horses indicate hunting (at least 10)
• Some researchers consider this site to preserve some of the earliest evidence of fire
  (charcoal, charred wooden tools, heated flints)
  (evidence for hearths is not clear)

Question 5

As late as ca. 600-500 ka, the Acheulean persists

Answer 5

Late Acheulean

Question 6

Late Acheulean

Answer 6

Animal bones at late Acheulean sites have many carnivore marks that suggests that those hominins were still scavenging

Question 7

Lomekwian

Answer 7

3.3 Ma
- associated with australopiths banging rocks together

Question 8

Oldowan

Answer 8

2.5 - 1.76 Ma
- Associated with earliest Homo
- Understand stone flaking properties
- Simple choppers and flakes, unifacial

Question 9

Acheulean

Answer 9

1.76 Ma
- defined by the hand axe
- associated with Homo erectus
- bifacial flaking
- end goal: transmitted across millennia (teaching?)
- also associated with a change in the number of associated carcasses at butchery sites
- use of raw materials that are non-local (foresight for tool-making? Mastery of environment?)

Question 10

H. erectus populations in Europe evolved into . . .

Answer 10

Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis)

Question 11

H. erectus populations in Africa evolved into . . .

Answer 11

H. sapiens

Question 12

Some H. erectus populations in Asia persisted for a very long time while others probably evolved into . . .

Answer 12

Denisovans

Question 13

The earliest evidence for organized hunting is . . .

Answer 13

ca. 400 ka with “Homo heidelbergensis”

Question 14

History of Discovery: Neanderthals

Answer 14

La Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton found in 1908
- first fully described specimen (Marcellin Boule)
- particularly robust male, classic features
- 40 yr old with arthritis

Question 15

Homo neanderthalensis

Answer 15

Generally thought of as a European species (but also a few present in the Levant and Western Asia)

Question 16

Classic Neanderthal features

Answer 16

• long, low braincase
• face projecting along midline (receding zygomatics)
• double-arched brow ridges
• large nasal aperture
• suprainiac fossa
• occipital bun
• “en bombe” shape
• no canine fossa
• no chin
• retromolar space
• morphology of the inner ear

Question 17

Neanderthal ear

Answer 17

low position of the posterior semicircular canal within the inner ear

Question 18

Accretion Model

Answer 18

Proposes that classic neanderthal features accumulated over a long period of time
- therefore, all of those features would not be expected to be present in the earliest Neanderthals

Question 19

The glacial/interglacial cycle began in the . . .

Answer 19

Middle Pleistocene with Homo heidelbergensis occupying Europe during interglacials

Question 20

Characteristics of the Neanderthal post cranium

Answer 20

Difference in overall stockiness

Adaptation to cold environments
- Thermoregulation
- Body’s volume:surface area ratio

Body proportions
- broad trunk
- short distal limb

Question 21

Neanderthal cranial capacity was actually larger than that of Homo sapiens

Answer 21

Absolute cranial capacity was over 1300 cc
- but their bodies were larger
- thus, relative cranial capacity in Neanderthals was less than Homo sapiens

Question 22

The Lithic industries that follow the Acheulean are called the Middle Paleolithic in Europe and Middle Stone Age in Africa (MSA)

Answer 22

These industries are characterized by:
- overall less core tools, more flake tools
- handles rare or absent
- the appearance of core preparation
(Levallois technique)
- soft hammer techniques
- lots of retouching

Produces consistent size and shape
- thinner flakes

There are stone tool assemblages dated to ca. 300 ka in Africa that are clearing Middle Stone Age (MSA)
- There are some issues with identifying the earliest MSA

Question 23

Levallois Technique

Answer 23

Final flake of predetermined size and shape

Question 24

Middle Paleolithic and MSA assemblages include evidence for . . .

Answer 24

Mounted stone points

Question 25

Were Neanderthals skilled hunters?

Answer 25

Yes
(groups of Neanderthals would drive large animals off cliffs)

Question 26

Nitrogen isotopes are used to study . . .

Answer 26

Meat consumption
- the larger the isotope, the higher up the food chain (more meat consumed)

Question 27

Neanderthals liked cured animal skins . . .

Answer 27

Judging from labial wear of incisors

Question 28

“Lissoirs”

Answer 28

Specialized tools made from ungulate ribs, that were also probably used to prepare hides

Question 29

Neanderthals had mastered fire and could make it at will; they used fire to:

Answer 29

• heat flint
• harden spear points
• create adhesive
• warm themselves
• cook food
• ward off predators
• hunt

Consistent hearth location over different occupations

Question 30

Burniquel Cave

Answer 30

Mysterious ca. 180 ka site where Neanderthals apparently used fire

Question 31

There is a big debate about whether Neanderthals buried their dead

Answer 31

Spy
- nearly complete, articulated skeleton in cave

Kebara
- ochre in sediment
- previous assertions about wildflower pollen

La Chapelle-aux-Saint
- nearly complete skeleton in divots

Question 32

The Case for Compassion

Answer 32

Shanidar Cave, Iraq
- partial skeletons of at least 9 individuals
- 4 are argued to be deliberate burials

Shanidar 1: 40 yr old male
- left eye socket crushed (blind?)
- possible second blow to the left side resulted in withering of left shoulder girdle and humerus
- lower arm and hand missing (atrophied? amputated?)
- arthritis in knee

Question 33

Cannibalism has been suggested for a number of Middle Pleistocene hominins

Answer 33

El Sidron, Spain
- 49 Ka
Remains of multiple individuals
- bones were smashed, butchered, cannibalized
- 12 individuals

Question 34

Did Neanderthals have language?

Answer 34

• No indisputable evidence
• hyoid is only bone that is associated with the vocal apparatus (chimpanzee-like in afarensis; fully modern in neanderthals)
• can also look at basicranial flexion and attachment of tongue (Neanderthals similar to modern humans)
• genetic evidence (FOXP2 is a gene associated with language capabilities)

Question 35

The Last Neanderthals

Answer 35

St. Cesaire, France
- 35 ka

Vindija
- 33-32 ka

Anatomically and behaviorally modern humans in Europe by 35 ka
- Did they see each other? Did they interact?