The Ozone Story Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
What does PPM stand for?
A
Parts per million
Amount of gas particles in a sample containing 1 million particles
2
Q
How can you calculate percentage composition from PPM?
A
ppm/1,000,000 x 100 = percentage composition
AKA ÷ by 10,000
100% = 1,000,000ppm so 1% = 10,000ppm
To convert from ppm to %, ÷ by 10,000
3
Q
How can you calculate ppm from percentage composition?
A
% compostition/100 x 1,000,000 = ppm
AKA x by 10,000
100% = 1,000,000ppm so 1% = 10,000ppm
To convert from ppm to %, ÷ by 10,000
4
Q
When might the concentration of gas in a mixture be given as percentage by volume?
A
When the gas is present in a high concentration
e.g. various gases that make up the air in the atmosphere
5
Q
When might the concentration of gas in a mixture be given in ppm?
A
If the gas is present in a low concentration - less than 1% by volume
6
Q
Why is high energy UV radiation bad for the skin?
What damage can it do?
A
Its wavelength/frequency corresponds to the energy required to break chemical bonds, such as DNA
Therefore it can damage genes and lead to skin cancer
or damage proteins and age the skin
7
Q
What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
A
The range of wavelengths/frequencies over which electromagnetic radiation extends…
8
Q
What is photodissociation?
A
Bond breaking caused by visible light/UV radiation
9
Q
What do the surfaces of the Sun and Earth both emit?
A
EM radiation
10
Q
What 2 equations link the 2 properties of light (i.e. wave-particle duality?)
A
c = λv
E = hv
Where λ = wavelength and v = frequency
11
Q
How do you calculate the frequency needed to break a bond?
AKA energy needed to cause photodissociation
A
Convert kJ/mol into J/mol by x1000
Work out the min. energy needed to break a single bond by ÷NA
Divide energy by Planck’s constant (v = E ÷ h)
12
Q
How do you calculate bond enthalpy from frequency?
A
Calculate energy needed to break 1 bond by using E = hv
x NA to work out energy needed to break 1mol of bonds
÷1000 to give answer in kJ/mol
13
Q
What are the 4 possible outcomes when molecules absorb EM raditation?
Put them in order of decreasing energy (highest energy to lowest)
A
Electronic transmission between energy levels
Vibration of bonds
Rotation of whole molecule
Translation of whole molecule
(Electronic transmission = requires most energy)
14
Q
Absorbtion of which types of EM radiation cause which outcomes (i.e. changes in molecule)?
Match them up
A
Electronic transmission = Visible/UV
Vibration = IR
Rotation/Translation = Microwave
15
Q
Why is the energy required to cause electronic transmission/vibration/rotation/translation given as a range despite the fact the outcomes are quantised?
A
The amount of energy needed to do each of these things changes depending on the chemical/substance
16
Q
What 3 changes to a compound/substance can electronic transmission cause?
Put them in order of decreasing energy requirement (i.e. from highest→lowest energy requirement)
A
Can cause:
Ionisation - Cl2 → Cl2+ + e-
Dissociation - Cl2 → Cl• + Cl•
Release of energy + return to original state
17
Q
How does the effect visible light/UV radiation have on matter differ?
A
Both cause electronic transmission…
Vissible light causes electrons to be excited to higher energy levels and some bonds break
UV causes electrons to be excited to higher energy levels and bonds break
18
Q
What are the 2 ways covalent bonds can break?
What are the products of each type of breaking?
A
Homolytic fission - produces ions
Heterolytic fission - produces radicals
19
Q
What is heterolytic fission?
A
Type of covalent bond breaking
Both electrons from a shared pair go to same species
Forms ions
20
Q
What is homolytic fission?
A
Type of covalent bond breaking
One electron from a shared pair goes to each species
Forms radicals
21
Q
What is a radical?
A
A species with one (or more) unpaired electron
22
Q
What are curly arrows used to show?
What are the 2 types and what do they denote?
A
Used to show the movement of electrons
Full (double-headed) shows movement of a pair of electrons
Half (single-headed) shows movement of a single electron
23
Q
What is a radical chain reaction?
A
A reaction in which new radicals are formed at the end of one step
These radicals then continue/propagate the reaction
24
Q
What are biradicals?
Give an example
A
Species with 2 unpaired electrons
E.g. oxygen atoms
Dots are not usually used
25
What are the 3 stages of a radical chain reaction?
Briefly describe each step
**Initiation** - **radicals formed** from a stable molecule
**Propagation** - **radical reacts** + process **forms new radical**
Often occurs in **pairs** - radical formed in 1st propagation step reacts again in 2nd.
**Termination** - **2 radicals collide** to **form stable molecule** (non-radical)
26
What is the name of the mechanism/process by which a halogen atom can substitute a hydrogen atom in an alkane chain?
Radical substitution
*N.B. alk**a**ne **not** alk**e**ne - halogen would undergo nucleophilic substituion instead*
27
Describe the stages of the radical chain reaction that occurs between alkanes and halogens
(e.g. methane + chlorine)
**Initiation**: **Homolytic fission** of a **halogen** molecule occurs in the presence of **UV** light
Cl2 + hv → 2Cl•
**Propagation**: A **methyl radical** is formed, which then reacts to **reform the Cl•**
Hence the **Cl•** can be thought of as a **catalyst** during these steps
CH4 + Cl• → CH3• + HCl
CH3• + Cl2 → CH3Cl + Cl•
**Termination**: Cl• or CH3• radicals collide
Cl• + Cl• → Cl2
CH3• + Cl3• → CH3Cl
CH3• + CH3• → CH3CH3
The **overall equation** is: **Cl2 + CH4 → CH3Cl + HCl**
28
For the radical substitution reaction between chlorine and methane, why isn't ethane included as a product in the overall equation?
Cl2 + CH4 → CH3Cl + HCl
Because it occurs as a **side reaction** that **isn't as likely to happen**
Due to the nature of radical reactions, an ethyl radical could be created out of it, which could collide with a methyl radical to produce a propyl radical... etc.
Hence it's just easier to leave it out!
29
What is the troposphere?
The layer of the atmosphere **directly above Earth's surface**
30
What is the stratosphere?
The layer of the Earth's atmosphere **above the troposphere**
i.e. Above the layer directly above the Earth's surface... 2nd layer up
31
Which layer of the atmosphere is ozone naturally present in?
The stratosphere
32
What does ozone form when it is found in the troposphere?
Is a component of **photochemical smog**
Hence is a **secondary pollutant**
Photochemical smog causes **corrosion of plastics, rubber, textiles**, and **breathing problems**
33
What role does ozone play in the stratosphere?
**Absorbs high-energy UV** radiation from the Sun
This **prevents the radiation reaching the Earth's surface**
High-energy UV can cause health problems such as **skin cancer** and **cataracts**
34
Describe the steps of the depletion of ozone by chlorine atoms in the stratosphere
**Initiation**: **Chloroalkanes** reach the **stratosphere** and **photodissociate**, forming **Cl•**
CH3Cl + hv → CH3• + Cl•
**Propagation**: **Cl• reacts with ozone** in a **catalytic cycle** involving **O atoms** which are also **present in the stratosphere**
Cl• + O3 → ClO• + O2
ClO• + O → Cl• + O2
**Termination**: Cl• removed from the cycle by the following reaction:
Cl• + Cl• → Cl2
35
Using the cancellation method, work out the overall equation for the depletion of ozone by Cl atoms in the following propagation reactions:
Cl• + O3 → ClO• + O2
ClO• + O → Cl• + O2
Combine 2 equations with all reactants on one side and all products on the other:
Cl• + O3 + ClO• + O → ClO• + O2 + Cl• + O2
Cancel out any substances that appear twice (regardless of which side) to give overall equation:
**O3 + O → 2O2**
36
Using the cancellation method, work out the overall equation for the reaction of methane with chlorine in the following propagation reactions:
CH4 + Cl• → CH3• + HCl
CH3• + Cl2 → Cl• + CH3Cl
Combine 2 equations with all reactants on one side and all products on the other:
CH4 + Cl• + CH3• + Cl2 → CH3• + HCl + Cl• + CH3Cl
Cancel out any substances that appear twice (regardless of which side) to give overall equation:
**CH4 + Cl2 → HCl + CH3Cl**
37
Which haloalkanes photodissociate most easily?
Why?
What implications does this have for the atmosphere?
**Iodo- + Bromoalkanes photodissociate more easily than chloroalkanes**
This is because the **C-I and C-Br bonds are weaker** than C-Cl bonds
Hence they can be **broken down by lower frequency radiation** found in the **troposphere** and **do not reach the stratosphere**
**Fluroalkanes don't photodissociate in the stratosphere** because the **C-F bond is too strong** to be broken by the UV radiation present
38
Why can the Cl• radical present in the following porpagation steps of the depletion of ozone be described as a catalyst?
Cl• + O3 → ClO• + O2
ClO• + O → Cl• + O2
Because it **enables the second propagation stage** to take place by forming an **intermediate** but is **reformed** by the end of the overall reaction
It goes through the reaction **cycle many times** and is **not used up**/depleted
39
Describe how ozone is formed naturally in the stratosphere
Oxygen **molecules photodissociate** into oxygen **atoms**
**O2 + hv → 2O**
**Ozone** is formed when an oxygen **atom combines** with an oxygen **molecule**
**O2 + O → O3**
40
Describe how ozone is destroyed naturally in the stratosphere
Occurs when it absorbs high-energy UV raditation
## Footnote
**O3 + hv → O2 + O**
41
What is reaction kinetics?
The study of rates of reaction
42
What factors can affect rate of reaction?
* Concentration
* Pressure
* Use of a catalyst
* Temperature
* Surface area
* Particle size
* Intensity of radiation
43
What is the general formula to measure rate of reaction?
Rate of reaction = change in property ÷ time taken
44
What properties of a reaction could be measured to determine rate?
* Volume of gas evolved
* Mass change
* pH
* Colour change (colorimetry)
* Chemical analysis (i.e. taking samples, quenching, titration/colormetry)
45
What is collision theory?
Theory that explains how the frequency of collisions between particles affects the rate of reaction
i.e. r**eactions only occur when particles collide with the minimum amount of kinetic energy** (EA)
More collisions = higher/faster rate
46
How does increasing concentration/pressure affect the rate of reaction?
**More particles available for collisions** + in **closer proximity** to each other so there is a **higher chance of them colliding**
Therefore there is a higher chance of a successful collision occuring
(Provided the particles both have the minimum energy to react)
47
How does increasing temperature increase the rate of reaction?
At higher temps a **greater proportion of colliding particles have the sufficient energy to react** so more collisions have a greater energy than the EA
Therefore there is a higher liklihood of successful collisions occuring/more successful collisions occur
48
How does increasing the surface area of a solid affect the rate of reaction?
When a solid is more finely divided, there is a **larger surface area** for reactions to take place on
This means there is a **greater frequency of collisions** and thus also a **greater frequency of successful collisions**
**Rate increases**
49
How does the use of a heterogeneous catalyst affect the rate of reaction?
Provides a surface where reacting particles may break and make bonds
Increases proximity of reactants + provides an alternate pathway with lower EA, making successful collisions/reactions more likely to take place
50
How do catalysts affect the rate of reaction?
Provide an **alternate reaction pathway with a lower EA** therefore increasing the chance of particles having the minimum amount of energy needed to successfully collide
Rate increases
51
How does increasing raditation intensity affect the rate of reaction?
(Photo)**dissociation of bonds faster** when intensity increases as **bonds absorb more energy per second** therefore **more are broken**
Increases rate
52
Wht general thing(s) do you need to measure in order to measure the rate of reaction
How quickly a reactant is used up or how quickly a product is formed
53
What is activation enthalpy?
The minimum kinetic energy required by a pari of colliding particles in order for a successful reacton to occur
54
What is a transition state?
The highest point on an enthalpy profile/point with highest energy on a reaction pathway
Between reactants + products forming
Where old bonds stretch and new ones start to form
55
What is an enthalpy profile?
Graph plotting enthalpy against the progress of a reaction
56
What are the main methods by which the rate of reaction can be measured experimentally?
* Measuring vol. gas produced - done using gas syrine or displacement of water. More gas produced per unit of time = faster rate
* Measuring mass changes - reactions which give off gas involve mass changes. Bigger change in mass per unit of time = faster rate
* Colorimetry - measures change of intensity as coloured chemical used up/produced. Measured using a colorimeter
* pH changes - if acid/alkali used up/produced, can be measured. pH meter can be used to monitor change. Faster change = faster rate
57
What effect does increasing the temperature by 10ºC (roughly) have on the rate of reaction?
It roughly doubles
58
What is the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution?
What does it show?
Shows the **fraction of particles with certain kinetic energy**
Comparing 2 different temperatures on the distribution shows that as temp increases so does the rate of reaction
59
What is needed in order for a reaction to take place?
Enough molecules with a combined kinetic energy that is higher than the Ea when they collide
60
Why do reactions take place faster at higher temperatures?
Because a larger proportion of the colliding particles have the minimum Ea needed to react
61
Draw a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution showing a catalysed and un-catalysed reaction
62
In Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution plots showing a catalysed and uncatalysed reaction OR reactions at 2 different temps, what is the same and what is different?
The **area** under the graphs is the **same** but the **distribution** is **different**
63
How do catalysts affect the enthalpy change of a reaction?
They **don't**
It **stays the same** regardless of whether a catalyst is used or not
*(Ea is affected)*
64
What aspects of equilibrium do/don't catalysts affect?
**Don't affect the position/composition** of equilibirum
BUT **do affect the rate** at which it is reached
65
What is a dipole?
Two opposite charges seperated by a (short) distance
66
What are intermolecular bonds?
The bonds found in **solid/liquids** **between molecules**
67
What did CFCs used to be used for/in?
* Refrigerants + in air can units
* Aerosol propellants
* Blowing agents for expanded plastics
* Dry cleaning solvents
68
What is a polar bond?
A bond in which there is an **uneven distribution of charge** between the 2 atoms
Results in 1 atom have a **partially positive** (𝛿+) charge and 1 atom have a **partially negative** (𝛿-) charge
69
What is electronegativity?
A measure of the **ability of an atom** in a molecule to **attract the electrons in a covalent bond**
70
Electronegativity is related to the position of an atom in the period table
What are the trends in electronegativity in the periodic table?
Electronegativity **increases along a period** (towards the halogens)
and **going up a group**
71
What is the distribution of electrons like in a non-polar covalent molecule?
Electrons **equally shared**
Distance between each nucleus + electrons identical
Arrangement may also be due to **equal electron affinity/electronegativity**
72
What is the distribution of electrons like between a larger and smaller atom?
Shared electrons **more strongly attracted** to nucleus of **smaller** atom as its **nucleus is closer** due to **electron shielding in the larger** atom
73
What is the distribution of electrons like in atoms with different electron affinities/electronegativies?
The shared electrons are **more stongly attracted** to the nucleus with the **larger charge + greater electron affinity**/electronegativity
74
What is another name for a permanent dipole?
An overall dipole
75
If a molecule has symmetrical polar bonds, will it have an overall dipole?
No
**If charges are arranged symmetrically around the central molecule then no overall dipole**
However, electrons wil still be unevenly distributed in individual bonds
e. g. CCl4
* Use bond shapes/VSEPR theory models to work it out*
76
What are the 4 types of intermolecular bond?
**Hydrogen** bonds
**Instantaneous** dipole-**induced** dipole bonds
**Permanent** dipole-**induced** dipole bonds
**Permanent** dipole-**permanent** dipole bonds
77
Out of all of the types of intermolecular bonds, which is the strongest?
Hydrogen bonds
78
Which of the dipole-dipole bonds is the strongest?
**Permanent** dipole-**induced** dipole
79
What types of dipole-dipole attractions will be present in a molecule with an overall dipole?
**Permanent** dipole-**permanent** dipole
AND **Instantaneous** dipole-**induced** dipole
(And possibly H-bonds)
80
Describe a permanent dipole-permanent dipole bond
Occurs if 2 neighbouring molecules both have a permanent dipole
If so, there will be an electrostatic attraction between the charges of the dipoles
81
What is an instantaneous dipole?
What causes one?
Arrises due to the fact **electrons in constant motion**
At a particular time they **may not be evenly distributed**
Hence a dipole may arise due to **temporarily uneven charges**
82
What is an induced dipole?
What causes one to arise?
Occurs if **non-polar/unpolarised molecule next to a dipole**
**Dipole attracts/repels electrons in unpolarised molecule, creating a dipole** in it as well
**Can't occur if no permanent or instantaneous dipoles**
83
Describe an instantaneous dipole-induced dipole bond
If 2 neighbouring molecules don't have a permanent dipole there will still be attraction between them
This is an id-id bond
**Occurs between molecules even if permanent dipoles also present**
Caused by **constant motion of electrons**. This means they **may not be evenly distributed** beween atoms at a given time, causing **temporarily uneven charges** and, therefore, a **dipole**
84
Explain how instantaneous dipole-induced dipole bonds arise
**Electrons** in a molecule are in **continuous, random motion**
At a particular moment in time they may be **unevenly distributed**
This creates an **instantaneous dipole**
The **dipole induces a dipole on a neighbouring molecule**, creating an... induced dipole
There is an **electrostatic attrction** between the two dipoles
85
Why do instantaneous dipole-induced dipole bonds continously break and re-form?
Because the **electron distribution in molecules is constantly chaning** due to the fact they are in **continuous, random motion**
86
What factors affect the strength of instantaneous dipole-induced dipole bonds?
The **no. electrons** in the molecule - **more** means g**reater chance of instantaneous dipole arrising**
**Distance** between molecules - **closer packing** means **greater electrostatic attraction**
87
Why do longer chain hydrocarbons have higher boiling points than shorter chains?
Because longer chains **increase the no. id-id bonds**
88
Why do branched molecules (e.g. hydrocarbons) have lower boiling points than unbranched chains?
Increased branching **decreases the surface area** of 1 molecule in contact with another hence the **strength of id-id bonds is decreased**
89
How does the number of electrons in a molecule affect the strength of id-id bonds?
How can this be used to explain the trend in boiling points of the halogens?
Molecules with **more electrons have** **more chance of forming id-id bonds**
The **strength** of id-id bonds also **increases**
Hence **boiling points increase** as you go **down the halogens** (Iodine = highest)
90
What is a chlorine reservoir?
A molecule that 'stores' chlorine and prevents it from reacting
e.g. HCl + ClONO2
91
When drawing a diagram to show hydrogen bonding, what should you include?
The **lone pair(s)**
The **partial charges** on the atoms
The correct **bond angle** around the H𝛿+ atom
Dashed/dotted lines between the atoms that are hydrogen bonded
92
What are the requirements for hydrogen bonding to occur?
A **large dipole** between a H atom and a highly electronegative atom (resulting in a **H𝛿+**)
A **small electronegative atom** in the other molecule - **N, O, or F**
**Lone pair on NOF** that H can line up/bond with
93
What is the bond angle of atoms that are hydrogen bonded?
**180º** - **linear** (around the H𝛿+)
Because the lone pair (from the NOF) points directly at the H𝛿+
94
How many hydrogen bond can water form per molecule (on average)?
Why?
**2 per molecule**
Because **O has 2 lone pairs** and is bonded to 2 H, creating **2 H𝛿+**
Allows 2 bonds to form to neighbouring molecules
95
Describe the shape and structure of ice with reference to H bonding
**H bonds** formed when **water freezes** gives ice a **regular structure**
The **H bonds + covalent bonds** around each **O** are arranged **tetrahedrally**
This arrangement of bonds around each O gives ice a very **open structure**
Hence, ice has a **lower density than water** and **floats** on it
96
What properties does H bonding give molecules?
**High viscosity** - for liquid to **flow molecules** must be able to **move past each other**, so frequent/easy **breaking + forming of bonds required**
**Solubilty in water** due to fact that **H bonds** can **form between water +** molecules of **substance**
97
What is the trend for boiling points in the halogens?
Why?
**Boiling points increase** with **heavier halogen atoms** + in molecules containing **more halogen atoms**
The larger the halogen/the more halogen atoms, the **greater the overall number of electrons**
This **increases the number of instantaneous dipole-induced dipole bonds**
This means the **intermolecular bonds are stonger** so **more energy is needed to seperate the molecules** from each other, hence they have higher boiling points
98
What is the trend in bond strength in the halogens?
Why?
C-Hal bonds become **weaker as the size of the halogen atom increases**
This makes the **bond easier to break** and the compounds become **more reactive**
Although the **C-F** bond is the **most polar**, **fluroalkanes** are **very unreactive**
This shows that it is **bond strength rather than bond polarity** that has the greatest effect on the reactivity of halogens (it is the **determining factor** in reactivity)
99
Describe the general reactivity of different haloalkanes
**Fluoro**alkanes - compounds are **very unreactive**
**Chloro**alkanes - compounds are **reasonably stable in troposphere** and can react to produce **Cl radicals** that **deplete ozone**
**Bromo- and iodo**-alkanes are **reactive** so are useful as **intermediates in chemical synthesis**
100
What is the general equation for the homolytic fission of haloalkanes?
R-Hal (+ hv) → R• + Hal•
101
Which haloalkane most easily undergoes homolytic fission?
Why?
Compounds containing the **C-I bond** as it has the **lowest bond enthlapy**
102
What is the general formula for the heterolytic fission of haloalkanes?
R-Hal (+ hv) → R+ + Hal-
103
What is a carbocation?
An ion with a positively charged carbon atom
104
What is a nucleophile?
A **molecule or negatively charged ion** with a **lone pair** of electrons tht it can **donate** to a **positively charged atom** to form a **dative covalent bond**
Means 'nucleus loving' and is **attracted** to areas of **positive charge**
105
What are the conditions for homolytic fission (of haloalkanes?)
**Gas phase** with **high temps** OR the presence of **UV radiation** (e.g. in the stratosphere)
106
What is a substitution reaction?
A reaction in which one atom/group in a compound is replaced by another
107
What is the general equation for nucleophilic substitution reactions involving haloalkanes?
R-Hal + Nu- → R-Nu + Hal-
108
Describe the stages of nucleophilic substitution
1. **Nucelophile attacks electron deficient carbon** atom in **C-Hal** bond
2. **Nucelophile donates its lone pair** to **C** to form a **dative covalent bond**
3. The **carbon-halogen bond breaks heterolytically**, with the halogen recieveing **2 e-** + forming a **halide ion**. This is the **leaving group**
109
How many steps is there to nucleophilic substitution if the nucleophile is an ion OR a neutral molecule?
For an ion - 1 step
For a neutral molecule - 2 steps
110
Draw the general reaction mechanism for the nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes
111
How can haloalkanes be synthesised?
By reversing nucleophilic substitution
112
Draw the reaction mechanism for the nucelophilic substitution of bromobutane by hydroxide ions
113
Draw the reaction mechanism for the nucleophilic substitution of a haloalkane by water
114
What is a nucleophile substitution reaction involving what also called?
A **hydrolysis** reaction
115
Why is water able to act as a nucleophile?
Because it has 2 lone pairs on the oxygen atom
116
Why is ammonia able to act as a nucleophile?
Because it has a lone pair on the nitrogen atom
117
What is the general equation for nucleophilic substitution reaction of ammonia and a haloalkane?
R-Hal + NH3 → R-NH2 + Hal- + H+
Sometimes written as:
R-Hal + NH3 → R-NH3+ + Hal- ⇌ R-NH2 + Hal- + H+
118
Draw the mechanism for the reverse nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes
(Used to synthesize them)
The **halide ion** (X-) acts as the **nucleophile**
The reaction is done in the presence of a **strong acid** which provides a **H+** for the **O** in the alcohol to bond with
This causes the **oxygen** to have a **positive charge**, so it more strongly attracts electrons from the **C-O** bond (**bond polarised**)
This causes the **C** to have a **higher partial positive charge**, causing it to be **attacked by the halide ion**
This causes a **water** molecule to become the **leaving group**
119
When water is used as a nucleophile to react with a haloalkane, what is the/are the:
General equation
Product(s)
Reaction conditions
Equation:
**R-Hal + H2O → R-OH + H+ + Hal-**
Product:
**Alcohol**
Reaction Condition:
**Heat under reflux** - this is sometimes called hydrolysis
120
When OH- is used as a nucleophile to react with a haloalkane, what is the/are the:
General equation
Product(s)
Reaction conditions
General Equation:
**R-Hal + OH- → R-OH + Hal-**
Product:
**Alcohol**
Reaction Conditions:
**Heated under reflux** **with NaOH(aq)** with **ethanol** as a **solvent**
121
When ammonia is used as a nucleophile to react with a haloalkane, what is the/are the:
General equation
Product(s)
Reaction conditions
General Equation:
**R-Hal + NH3 → R-NH2 + Hal- + H+**
Product:
**Amine**
Reaction Conditions:
**Haloalkane heated with conc. ammonia solution** in a **sealed tube**
122
What are the general conditions for heterolytic fission?
Dissolved in a polar solvent such as an ehtanol/water mixture
123
What must nucleophilic substitution reactions to make haloalkanes (from alcohols) be done in the presence of?
A strong acid
| (To provide H+)
