The rise of Mussolini and the creation of a fascist dictatorship, 1919-26 Flashcards
(44 cards)
What was the impact of the mutilated victory?
Italy was very successful in the peace negotiations after the First World War. It achieved most of the terroritorial gains promised in the Treaty of London and was granted 14,500 square kilometres of land. This was more than any other victorious country. Despite this, many Italians were dissatisfied with the peace settlement. They believed that all of the terroritorial aspects of the Treaty of London should have been granted. The most controversial Italian denands however, were not even in the Treaty of London - demands for the Brenner Pass between Italy and Austria and for the port of Fiume.
What did Italy recieve and how did they react to this?
Italy recieved Trentino, Trieste, Istria, the Brenner and some terrorities not in the Treaty of London, such as some of the Dalmatian Islands. Italy was also allowed to receive German war reparations and was given a permanent seat in the newly formed League of Nations.
Italian feelings of betrayal remained, however, and Fiume became a powerful symbol of their discontent. It was exploited by Italian Nationalists and Fascists to emphasise the betrayal of the Italian armed forces by both the Allies and a weak Liberal government. The phrase ‘mutilated victory’ was used by Italian Nationalists to describe the perceieved mistreatment of Italy by the Allies.
What was the occupation of Fiume?
In 1919, the Italian Prime Minister, Vittorio Orlando, raised the issue of Fiume with the Allied leaders. Britain and the USA felt that Fiume should remain part of the newly created nation of Yugoslavia. Before 1919, Fiume was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and had a mixed population of Croats and Italians. It had not formed part of the Treaty of London negotiations. Nationalists wanted Fiume because of its 50% Italian-speaking population meant that for them, it was Italian. The Allies rejected Italy’s request, and the negotiators were seen as failures for not achieving the demand, no matter how weak the basids was for the demand in terms of previous agreements. This failure led to the poet and Nationalist Gabriele D’Annunzio leading an invasion and seziure of Fiume in September 1919.
What were the events of the occupation of Fiume?
In September 1919, D’Annunzio, alongside Nationalists, army offices and industrialists, led a coup to seize Fiume. He led 2,000 former soldiers known as arditi, and seized control of Fiume, calling it the Free State of Fiume. Allied troops withdrew and did not resist the takeover. The occupation lasted 15 months.
During the occupation, Nationalists of all types flocked to the city, which had a festive atmosphere. D’Annunzio made long speeches and introduced many elements of later Fascist regimes, for example:
- The militia.
- the ‘Roman salute’.
- the castor oil punishment for those who opposed them.
- the title of Duce.
- Black shirts for those who supported the movement.
- Flamboyant rhetorical public speeches.
Meanwhile, Giovanni Giolitti opened negotiations with Yugoslavia, reaching an agreement in November 1920. The agreement was called the Treaty of Rapallo and declared Fiume an independent city. This was generally welcomed in Italy, where many had tired of D’Annunzio’s antics. In December, Giolitti’s new govt sent in the Italian Army and navy to remove D’Annunzio.
What was the significance of the occupation?
Many Italians were critical of Giolitti’s actions, seeing them as unpatriotic. The occupation became a symbol of Nationalist defiance, and the govt’s reluctance to act and the slow speed with which it intervened damaged its credibility. Their unwillingness to prevent such illegal actions by Nationalist or Fascist groups gave their opponents more momentum, revealing that force could be used to achieve political aims. D’Annunzio’s actions influenced Mussonlini and the Fascist movement in Italy. More Italians became attached to the political extreme.
What was the post-war economic crisis?
Italy faced severe economic problems in the years 1919-22, largely because of its involvement in the First World War. Inflation had a huge impact on the cost of living, particularly in urban areas. Businesses were affected when military contracts were stopped. This in turn, caused rising unemployment. By 1919, 2 million Italians were unemployed. The savings of the middle classes were badly damaged and they became even more disillusioned with the govt. All social groups affected by the economic problems searchefd for solutions, and in doing so they became more willing to turn to the political extremes.
What happened in rural areas?
Returning soldiers forcibly occupied lands in southern Italy, and the number of peasant landowneers increased dramatically. They had profited from the war enough to be able to buy the land they farmed, because wartime food price inflation meant theey made more money than the food they sold.
Some left-wing groups tried to solve these problems with labour-owned collective farms. In other areas, local government was run by the Socialists, who set local wage rates and working conditions. In 1919 and 1920, Gioliti’s coalition government ordered prefects to legalise land confisications. All of these developments made landlords and large tenant farmers feel more threatened.
Was there social discontent?
Economic problems help to explain the increasee in militancy among urban workers after 1918. This included a huge increase in strikes in 1919-20, known as the Biennio Rosso or Two Red Years. In 1919, for example, there were 1.663 strikes in industry and 208 in agriculture. In September 1920, the occupation of the factories took place in which 400,000 workers took over their factories. Increasing numbers of workers and peasants were involved in these actions, while membership of workers’ organisations also grew rapidly.
Another sign of discontent at the economic problems was food riots. These riots caused by a sharp increase in food prices, broke out spontaneously in June 1919. The government ordered local authorities to set up food committees to requisition food and issued price decrees to halve the price of foodstuffs.
Some Socialists called for a communist revolution like that in Russia, though this was never a serious threat. Despite this, the pressure of the strikes and increasing Socialist support led the government to make some significant concessions, for example it:
- introduced a minimum wage.
- established an eight-hour working day.
- officially recognised factory grievance committees.
Discontent among the elites and middle classes.
The reforms and initiatives above caused discontent among wealthier people. Industrialists feared a loss of influence as well as a takeover of the country by the Socialist movement. They felt that the elites should have power rather than the lower classes. This led them to amplify the red threat more than it probably deserved.
The middle classes and petty bourgeoisie were also disenchanted. They were hit hard by the economic problems and often did not have unions to represent their interests. Due to inflation, their savings had lost value and they saw the industrial workers gaining economically at their expense. There was extra tax pressue on the middle class. Their frustrations were aimed at the government, and they too looked for answers in the political extremes. They formed associations to represent their economic interests against those of big business and the working classes. These upper and middle classes began to turn to fascism in their belief that fascist groups would protect their economic, social and political interests.
What were the political reforms of 1919?
After the First World War, there were attempts to reform the Italian political system. In December 1918, Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando implemented universal male suffrage in an attempt to win more electoral support. It was meant to be a reward for soldiers who had fought in the First World War.
In 1919, Francesco Savero Nitti introduced proportional representation, where each party was allocated a number of seats in proportion to the number of votes cast for their candidates in the Chamber of Deputies. He hoped it would weaken support for the more extreme political parties but was proven wrong.
How did the Socialist and the Catholic parties grow?
The adoption of universal suffrage and proportional representation led to the emergence of two mass parties: the Socialist Party and the Catholic Popolari party.
The Socialist Party:
- The Psi grew to become a mass party. Italian Socialists won elections in m\any town councils and so controlled local taxes and services. Despite this, however, they were divided between the PSI, Socialist trade unions and socialist councils. These groups often failed to work together effectively, and after WW1, the movement lacked a leader that could unify them. The Socialists also lacked an effective tragedy to take and keep political power, despite their rising support.
Popolari:
- The Popolari, or Popular Party, was founded in January 1919 by the Sicilian priest Don Luigi Sturzo. The party consisted of a coalition of Catholics who wanted to improve the living standards of Italian peasants. They supported various social reforms including the foundations of a welfare state. They were prepared to enter coalitions with the Liberals as long as they were granted meaningful political concessions.
What was result and impact of the 1919 elections?
The November 1919 election result saw the PSI and the Popolari become the two most powerful parties in the Chamber of Deputies, with 156 and 100 Deputies respectively. Giolitti’s liberals only won 91 seats, while the right-wing Liberals won 23. The Liberals were no longer the politivcal force they were before WW1.
What did Benito Mussolini found?
On 23 March 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the new political group Fasci di Combattimento. The event organised to launch it was not well attended, with only 118 assorted radicals present. The word fascio was increasingly being used by right-wing political groups to stand for strength and unity. Initially, Mussolini prioritised action over political theory, and the ideoligy of the new movement was unclear. After 1922, he tried to add more depth to fascism and develop a coherent doctrine but this was never fully achieved.
What did their manifesto say?
- A minimum wage and an eight-hour working day.
- the confisication of Church property.
- Control of the banks and stock exchanges.
- The restoration of Italy’s national strength and prestige.
These policies were intended to attract support from different social classes within Italy. On its way to power, the Fascist movement would dramatically change its policies.
What happened in the 1919 election?
The elections of 1919 election were a failure for the Fascists. They failed to win any seats in the Parliament, and achieved fewer than 5,00 votes out of 275,000 in their powerbase of Milan. It seemed that fascism was on the verge of collapse, with only 4,000 active supporters in 1919. It was Mussolini’s exploitation of conservative fears of the Socialist threat that saved the movement and led to its rapid growth.
What was Squadrismo and what was their move to the right?
The mass worker occupation of factories in 1920 convinced many Italians they were on the verge of a revolution and that Fascists would defend Italy against this threat. Initially, fascism gained its support from urban areas and former servicemen, expanding from Milan into other Northern Italian cities and towns. From early 1921 onwards, the movement of fascism from urban to rural areas resulted in more support for the Fascists. Agricultural employers called for help against local socialist or Catholic unions, and financed the groups that were set up as a result. Fascists organised themselves into squads, paramilitary groups often led by former army officers. They wore black shirts to identify themselves and targeted Socialists, often violently. They invaded villafes, beat up union leaders, engaged in strike breaking, intimidated voters during elections and organised tax strikes in socialist-controlled towns. They were often helped by the army and the police, who saw the Fascists as a good way to regain control of certain areas.
Mussolini and the squadristi?
Mussolini put himself forward as the leader of the Fascist movement, and took credit for the actions of the squadristi. Local fascist leaders did not want to surrender their independence, however and the radical local leaders, the Ras, resisted control. Despite this, Mussolini convinced the majority of them to support him, and his newspaper, Il Popolo D’Italia was used to publicise fascist actitivities. With Mussolini as a unifying leader, the movement could present itself as powerful, stable and national. In turn, Mussolini used the squadristi to present himself as a moderate statesmen, the only one who could keep the violence of the squads in check. In that way, he tried to appeal to both the radicals and the traditional elites. By the middle of 1921, the squadristi controlled significant areas of the Italian countryside, placing Mussolini in a powerful position.
What was the support from 1921 like?
Local leaders within rural areas, for example, powerful landowners, often supported the squadristi. The fascist movement now appealed to shopkeepers and wealthier families. Small-scale industrialists angry at the tax increases and economic problems also played a role in supporting and financing local fascist groups.
Younger Italians saw fascism as an appealing alternative to the corrupt Liberal system while older generations saw it as promoting stability. At the same time, fascism still appealed to radicals like Italo Balbo or Roberto Farinacci, who believed in the violent overthrow of the state by force.
What were Mussolini’s policies?
Mussolini’s policy of trying to appeal to both his radical urban followers and establishment figures has been referred to as a dual policy. Fascism was clearly moving away from its left-wing roots to a much more conservative of right-wing stance. Some radical policies were dropped for example republicanism and anti-clericalism. Fascism was changing rapidly.
In July 1921, Mussolini proposed a pact of pacification between the fascists and the Socialist trade unions. Conservative supporters did not want the violnce of the squadristi to go too far, and the pact of pacification made Mussolini look like a peacemaker. The pact itself failed, as many Fascist leaders rejected it and looked about for a new leader. It threatened to split the movement but no clear alternative to Mussolini existed, so he survived in position when he abandoned the pact. Mussolini sought other ways to achieve political legitimacy.
When was the National Fascist party founded?
Mussolini announced the creation of a formal Fascist political party known as the Partito Nazionale Fascista in October 1921. It provided more co-ordination to the movement and gave Mussolini greater control. Local branches were set up, ‘respectable’ recruits attracted and membership dues collected, in contrast to the looser organisation of the violent squads. Those in control of the party were from Mussolini’s Milan powerbase and were loyal to him. From this point, he was also able to take part in political negotiations legitimately with other parties. Membership grew quickly, from 200,000 members in 1921 to 300,000 by 1922, and it became the party of the respectable middle classes of Italy. As such, other political parties began considering including the Fascists in coalitions and in government, in order to normalise them and make them less radical.
What was the New Programme?
The main appeal of the Fascists was their anti-socialism, their emphasis on patriotism and the leadership cult of Mussolini. In November 1921, the Fascist political programme included the following points, among others:
- an eight-hour working-day.
- limiting citizen fredoms.
- taxes should be proportional to income and there should be no forcible confisications.
- there were no references to confisicating the property of the Catholic Church.
- military service should be obligatory.
- Italy’s influence in the Mediterranean should be expanded.
What did Mussolini announce in November 1921?
In November 1921, Mussolini declared his opposition to divorce, in an attempt to attract the support of Catholics.
What was the nature and extent of Fascist support in 1922?
By 1922, support for the Fascist movement and for Mussolini personally had increased dramatically. He continued to exploit middle and upper class fears of a Socialist revolution, and moved fascism increasingly to the right. In 1922, the key support for Fascism came from:
- landowners and civil servants.
- Shopkeepers, small merchants and small business owners.
- teachers and university students.
- artisans and skilled craftsmen.
These supporters were drawn from a wwide range of backgrounds but all of them felt insecure about their economic future and were worried about the threat of socialism towards their jobs, land and social class.
What were the Fascist syndicates?
As the Fascists gained greater control in the early 1920s and broke up Socialist and Catholic trade unions, workers were forced to join Fascist syndicates to gain employment. Some were attracted to the Fascists because they disliked the violence used by Socialist trade unions against those who refused to co-operate with strikers, while others were driven by the neccessity of gaining work. Other workers liked fascist policies on fair wages and prices, or providing peasants with land. Employers tolerated this because it was viewed as a good alternative to Socialism.
