The Rise of Nationalism in Europe Flashcards
(223 cards)
1
Q
Name a French artist who prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’ and in what year.
A
Frédéric Sorrieu. 1848
2
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, who were marching in a long train and what were they doing?
A
The painting shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
3
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, how was liberty portrayed? What was it holding in its hands?
A
Frédéric Sorrieu personified Liberty as a female figure. It holds the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
4
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, what can we see on the ground?
A
On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
5
Q
What is absolutist?
A
Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised. In history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralised, militarised and repressive.
6
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, how are people identified?
A
In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
7
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, which two countries are leading the procession? Why?
A
Leading the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States and Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states.
8
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, which country follows France? What is interesting about the country following France in Frédéric’s painting?
A
France is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, red and gold flag. Interestingly, at the time when Sorrieu created this image, the German peoples did not yet exist as a united nation – the flag they carry is an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify the numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under a democratic constitution.
9
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, name all the countries that follow Germany.
A
Following the German peoples are the peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
10
Q
In Frédéric Sorrieu’s painting, how is fraternity potrayed?
A
From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They have been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations of the world.
11
Q
What was the end result of the changes in Europe?
A
The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
12
Q
What was the difference between modern states and nation states?
A
The concept and practices of a modern state, in which a centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over a long period of time in Europe.
A nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people.
13
Q
What is utopian?
A
A vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.
14
Q
Who gave the famous lecture ‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’)?
A
Ernst Renan
15
Q
When was France a full-fledged territorial state?
A
France was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.
16
Q
What led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens?
A
The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.
17
Q
What did the revolution in France proclaim?
A
The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
18
Q
From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of ____(1)____ amongst the French people. The ideas of___(2)___ (___(3)___) and ___(4)___ (___(5)___) emphasised the notion of a __(6)__ community enjoying __(7)__ rights under a ___(8)___. A new French flag, the __(9)__, was chosen to replace the ____(10)____. The ____(11)____ was elected by the body of ___(12)___ and renamed the _____(13)_____. New __(14)__ were composed, __(15)__ taken and ___(16)___ commemorated, all in the name of the nation. A _______(17)_______ was put in place and it formulated ___(18)___ laws for all citizens within its territory._______(19)_______ and _(20)_were abolished and a ______(21)_______ and __(22)__ was adopted. ____(23)____ were discouraged and __(24)__, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
A
(1) collective identity
(2) la patrie
(3) the fatherland
(4) le citoyen
(5) the citizen
(6) united
(7) equal
(8) constitution
(9) tricolour
(10) former royal standard
(11) Estates General
(12) active citizens
(13) National Assembly
(14) hymns
(15) oaths
(16) martyrs
(17) centralised administrative system
(18) uniform
(19) Internal customs duties
(20) dues
(21) uniform system of weights
(22) measures
(23) Regional dialects
(24) French
19
Q
What does la patrie and le citoyen mean?
A
The fatherland and the citizen
20
Q
What formulated uniform laws for all citizens during french revolution?
A
A centralised administrative system
21
Q
How and why were Jacobin clubs formed?
A
When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.
22
Q
When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of ______(1)______ began setting up ____(2)____. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the ___(3)___ which moved into __(4)__, ___(5)___, ___(6)___ and much of __(7)__ in the __(8)__. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the _____(9)_____ began to carry the idea of nationalism __(10)__.
A
(1) educated middle classes
(2) Jacobin clubs
(3) French armies
(4) Holland
(5) Belgium
(6) Switzerland
(7) Italy
(8) 1790s
(9) French armies
(10) abroad
23
Q
Through a return to ______ Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed ________ in France.
A
monarchy
democracy
24
Q
In order to make the whole administrative system more rational and efficient, when and what did Napoleon introduce?
A
The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code
25
Napoleonic Code –
Did away with all ___(1)___ based on __(2)__, established ___(3)___ before the _(4)_ and secured the ____(5)____. This Code was exported to the regions under __(6)__ control.
(1) privileges
(2) birth
(3) equality
(4) law
(5) right to property
(6) French
26
In the ____(1)____, in ___(2)___, in ___(3)___ and ____(4)____, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions.
(1) Dutch Republic
(2) Switzerland
(3) Italy
(4) Germany
27
To simplify administrative divisions, Napoleon abolished the ___(1)___ and freed ___(2)___ from __(3)__ and _____(4)_____.
(1) the feudal system
(2) peasants
(3) serfdom
(4) manorial dues
28
In the towns too, Napoleon made changes. ___(1)___ were removed. ___(2)___ and ______(3)______ were improved. __(4)__, __(5)__, __(6)__ and _____(7)______ enjoyed a new-found freedom. ____(8)____ and _____(9)_____ of goods, in particular, began to realize that ___(10)___, _________(11)__________, and a ________(12)_________ would facilitate the ___(13)___ and exchange of ______(14)______ from one region to another.
(1) Guild restrictions
(2) Transport
(3) communication systems
(4) Peasants
(5) artisans
(6) workers
(7) new businessmen
(8) Businessmen
(9) small-scale producers
(10) uniform laws
(11) standardized weights and measures
(12) common national currency
(13) movement
(14) goods and capital
29
Who and how did uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency introduced by Napoleon, help?
Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realize that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
30
However, in the areas conquered, the reactions of the local populations to French rule were mixed. Explain.
Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.
31
What were the disadvantages of Napoleonic code?
Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.
32
Where were the French armies welcomed as harbingers of liberty?
In many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.
33
When did Napoleon invade Italy?
1797
34
When was the fall of Napoleon?
1814-1815
35
What we know today as Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into ___(1)___, __(2)__ and __(3)__ whose rulers had their autonomous territories
(1) kingdoms
(2) duchies
(3) cantons
36
Eastern and Central Europe were under ______(1)______ within the territories of which lived __(2)__ peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing a ____(3)____ or a ____(4)____. Often, they even spoke ___(5)___ languages and belonged to different __(6)__ groups.
(1) autocratic monarchies
(2) diverse
(3) collective identity
(4) common culture
(5) different
(6) ethnic
37
The Habsburg Empire ruled over _________.
Austria-Hungary
38
The Hapsburg Empire included the Alpine region- the __(1)__, __(2)__ and the ___(3)___.
(1) Tyrol
(2) Austria
(3) Sudetenland
39
In Bohemia, what was different about the aristocracy?
In Bohemia, the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.
40
What were the Italian speaking provinces in the Hapsburg Empire?
The Italian-speaking provinces were Lombardy and Venetia
41
In Hungary, half of the population spoke __(1)__ while the other half spoke _____(2)______.
Magyar
| a variety of dialects
42
In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke _____.
Polish
43
In the Habsburg empire, there lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject __(1)__ peoples – ___(2)___ and __(3)__ to the north, __(4)__ in Carniola, __(5)__ to the south, and __(6)__ to the east in ___(7)___.
(1) peasant
(2) Bohemians
(3) Slovaks
(4) Slovenes
(5) Croats
(6) Roumans
(7) Transylvania
44
In the Habsburg Empire, which region consisted of Tyrol?
Alpine regions
45
In the Habsburg Empire, in which region was the aristocracy predominantly German speaking?
Bohemia
46
In the Habsburg Empire, which language did people in Lombardy speak?
Italian
47
In the Habsburg Empire, which language did people in Venetia speak?
Italian
48
In the Habsburg Empire, which region's half population spoke Magyar?
Hungary
49
In the Habsburg Empire, which region spoke Polish?
Galicia
50
In the boundaries of the Habsburg Empire, what regions were to the north?
Bohemians and Slovaks
51
In the boundaries of the Habsburg Empire, which place was in Carniola?
Slovenes
52
In the boundaries of the Habsburg Empire, which place was to the south?
Croats
53
In the boundaries of the Habsburg Empire, where were the Roumans located?
Roumans where in the east in Transylvania
54
Which class was the dominant class during nationalism in Europe?
Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent
55
How were the rich dominant class united?
- The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions.
- They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses.
- They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
- Their families were often connected by ties of marriage.
56
Were the rich dominant class more populated than the peasantry?
The powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry.
57
To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by __(1)__ and ___(2)___, while in Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterized by ___(3)___ which were cultivated by _(4)_.
(1) tenants
(2) small owners
(3) vast estates
(4) serfs
58
In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of ____(1)____ and __(2)__ meant the growth of __(3)__ and the emergence of ___(4)___ classes whose existence was based on production for the __(5)__.
(1) industrial production
(2) trade
(3) towns
(4) commercial
(5) market
59
When did industrialization begin in England?
Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century.
60
When did industrialization begin in France and parts of the German states?
In France and parts of the German states industrialization occurred only during the nineteenth century
61
What changes did industrialization bring in?
Due to industrialization, new social groups came into being: a working-class population, and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals.
62
Where did industrialization begin first (western/eastern europe)?
Industrialization began first in the western and central Europe. in eastern Europe, it only started till the late nineteenth centaury.
63
Which social group got the ideas of national unity and what other ideas did it lead to?
It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
64
Ideas of national unity were closely allied to the ideology of ________.
liberalism
65
The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root ____, meaning ___.
liber
| free
66
What did liberalism stand for the new middle class?
For the new middle classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century
liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.
67
What did liberalism stand for politically?
Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent
68
What concept did the 19th century liberals stress on?
Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.
69
Did equality before law, during nationalism, also stand for universal suffrage?
Equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. The right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men. Men without property and all women were excluded from political right.
70
When did, all men, property and non propertied men, get the right to vote?
Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage.
71
Did the Napoleonic code grant universal suffrage?
The Napoleonic Code limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
72
What did liberalism stand for in the economic sphere?
In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
73
During 1833, what would a merchant suffer, if it had to travel from Hamburg to Nuremburg to sell his goods?
Napoleon’s administrative measures had created out of countless small principalities a confederation of 39 states. Each of these possessed its own currency, and weights and measures. A merchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell his goods would have had to pass through 11 customs barriers and pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them. Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods. As each region had its own system of weights and measures, this involved time-consuming calculation. The measure of cloth, for example, was the elle which in each region stood for a different length. An elle of textile material bought in Frankfurt would get you 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg 65.6 cm, in Freiburg 53.5 cm.
74
What was the measure of cloth in Germany 1833?
Elle
75
Match the following
An elle of textile material bought in
Frankfurt 65.6 cm
Mainz 53.5 cm.
Nuremberg 54.7 cm
Freiburg 55.1 cm
Frankfurt -> 54.7 cm
Mainz -> 55.1 cm
Nuremberg -> 65.6 cm
Freiburg -> 53.5 cm
76
Each region had its own system of weights and measures. What problems did this create and what were people's demand for this?
As each region had its own system of weights and measures, this involved time-consuming calculation. Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
77
Each region had its own system of weights and measures. When, who, where and what change was brought for this?
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two. The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification. A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.
78
Who were benefited by the customs union? What is another name for customs union?
This helped in the economic development and traders, merchants, etc were benefited. Zollverein.
79
Customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of _____ and joined by most of the _________.
Prussia
| German states
80
When was Napoleon defeated?
1815
81
What did the conservatives believe?
Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
82
Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. What did they rather believe?
Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
- Rather, they realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
- It could make state power more effective and strong.
- A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
83
What all powers had defeated Napoleon?
Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria had collectively defeated Napoleon.
84
What happened in 1815 by the powers that had defeated Napoleon?
n 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The delegates. drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
85
Treaty of Vienna resulted in many changes. The ____(1)____ which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and __(2)__ lost the territories it had annexed under ___(3)___. A series of states were set up on the ___(4)___ of __(5)__ to ______(6)______. Thus the kingdom of the ___(7)___, which included __(8)__, was set up in the north and __(9)__ was added to ___(10)___ in the south. __(11)__ was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while __(12)__ was given control of northern Italy. But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left ___(13)___. In the east, Russia was given part of __(14)__ while __(15)__ was given a portion of Saxony.
(1) Bourbon dynasty
(2) France
(3) Napoleon
(4) boundaries
(5) France
(6) French expansion in future
(7) Netherlands
(8) Belgium
(9) Genoa
(10) Piedmont
(11) Prussia
(12) Austria
(13) untouched
(14) Poland
(15) Prussia
86
In the Treaty of Vienna, which region, which had initially lost power, was restored?
The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power.
87
In the Treaty of Vienna, why were a series of states set up on the boundaries of France?
A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
88
In the Treaty of Vienna, where was kingdom of the Netherlands placed on the boundaries?
North
89
In the Treaty of Vienna, to which was Genoa added and where was it set up on the French border?
Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south
90
In the Treaty of Vienna, what all territories was Prussia given?
Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers and Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
91
In the Treaty of Vienna, what did Austria gain?
Austria was given control of northern Italy
92
In the Treaty of Vienna, what region was remained untouched?
German confederation of 39 states
93
In the Treaty of Vienna, who gained Poland?
Russia
94
In the Treaty of Vienna, what was the main intention of the 4 powers?
The delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars. The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon, and create a new conservative order in Europe.
95
Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were ________.
autocratic
96
After the Treaty of Vienna, conservatives did not tolerate ___(1)___ and dissent, and sought to _(2)_ activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments. Most of them imposed ___(3)___ laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and songs and reflected the ideas of __(4)__ and __(5)__.
(1) criticism
(2) curb
(3) censorship
(4) liberty
(5) freedom
97
One of the major issues taken up by the liberal- nationalists, who criticised the new conservative order, was ____________.
freedom of the press
98
During the years following 1815, what did the fear of repression result in?
During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had been established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom. Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.
99
What did the members of the secret society believe in?
- To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had been established after the Vienna Congress.
- To fight for liberty and freedom.
- Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.
100
One such individual from the members of the secret society was the Italian revolutionary ____(1)____. Born in __(2)__ in 1807, he became a member of the secret society of the ___(3)___.
(1) Giuseppe Mazzini
(2) Genoa
(3) Carbonari
101
Giuseppe Mazzini was an _________ revolutionary
Italian
102
When was Giuseppe Mazzini born?
Genoa in 1807
103
What happened to Giuseppe Mazzini when he was 24?
As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
104
What were the 2 underground societies founded by Giuseppe Mazzini?
He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne.
105
From where were the members of Giuseppe Mazzini's societies from?
He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
106
What did Giuseppe Mazzini believe?
Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
107
Following Giuseppe Mazzini model, where all were secret societies set up?
Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
108
How did Metternich describe Giuseppe Mazzini?
Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’
109
Most revolution during nationalism in Europe, were led by which kind of people?
These revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging to the educated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, schoolteachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.
110
When and where did the first upheaval take place in Europe?
The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830
111
What happened in France in 1830?
The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
112
When was the Bourbon king overthrown from France and who ruled in replacement?
The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
113
‘When France sneezes,’ Metternich once remarked, ‘the rest of Europe catches cold.’ Support with an example.
The July Revolution in 1830 in France, which overthrew the bourbon dynasty and introduced a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe, sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
114
After the July revolution, what happened to Belgium?
The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
115
Which event mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe?
An event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the Greek war of independence
116
How did Greece gain independence?
Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832
recognized Greece as an independent nation.
117
When did the struggle for independence amongst the Greeks begin?
1821
118
How did Greece succeed in gaining the sympathy of other regions?
- Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
- Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization and mobilized public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
- The English poet Lord Byron organized funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.
119
What finally marked Greece as an independent nation?
Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
120
_____ played an important role in creating the idea of the nation
Culture
121
What helped express and shape nationalist feelings?
Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
122
What is Romanticism?
Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment
123
What did romantic artists criticize and believe in instead?
Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a
common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
124
Who was Johann Gottfried Herder and what did he claim?
He was a romantic German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularised. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.
125
Why was there an emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore?
The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate
126
What was the condition of Poland at the end of the 18th century? How were nationalist feelings kept alive?
Poland had been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by the Great Powers – Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
127
Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his __(1)__ and __(2)__, turning folk dances like the __(3)__ and __(4)__ into nationalist symbols.
(1) operas
(2) music
(3) polonaise
(4) mazurka
128
Who celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music in Poland?
Karol Kurpinski
129
What problem did Poland face on the basis of language?
After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
130
What action did people in Poland take to fight for their language?
In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.
131
The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. Explain with justification.
- The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
- In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
- Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
- Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England, where industrialization was more advanced than on the continent. This was especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small workshops and was only partly mechanized.
- In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
- The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country
132
What occurred in 1848 in France?
The year 1848 was a year of great economic hardship. Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads. Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up.
133
What problems did the workers in Silesia face in 1845?
In 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments
134
How did the journalist Wilhelm Wolff describe the events in a Silesian village?
The journalist Wilhelm Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows: In these villages (with 18,000 inhabitants) cotton weaving is the most widespread occupation … The misery of the workers is extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they order … On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with scorn and threats alternately. Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant windowpanes, furniture, porcelain … another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds … The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village which, however, refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.
135
As Wilhelm Wolff described, what was the population of the Silesian village?
18,000
136
As Wilhelm Wolff described, when did the weavers march and demand for higher wages from their contractors?
1845, On 4 June at 2 p.m
137
As Wilhelm Wolff described, how did the contractors take his revenge on the workers who protested and destroyed their homes?
The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village which, however, refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.
138
As Wilhelm Wolff described, how many workers were shot?
11
139
What did changes did the events of February in 1848 lead to in France?
Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.
140
What was the reaction in other parts of the Europe where independent nation-states did not exist, about the France 1848 event?
In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
141
After the France 1848 event, what took place in Germany and what results did it bring about?
In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded. The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.
142
In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were ______(1)______, ___(2)__and ______(3)_______ came together in the city of __(4)__ and decided to vote for an ________(5)________. On ____(6)____, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the ___(7)___ parliament convened in the ______(8)_______. They drafted a ___(9)___ for a German nation to be headed by a __(10)__subject to a __(11)__. When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to ______(12)______, King of __(13)__, he rejected it and joined other __(14)__ to oppose the elected assembly. While the opposition of the __(15)__ and __(16)__ became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded. The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who __(17)__ the demands of workers and artisans and consequently ____(18)____. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to __(19)__.
(1) middle-class professionals
(2) businessmen
(3) prosperous artisans
(4) Frankfurt
(5) all-German National Assembly
(6) 18 May 1848
(7) Frankfurt
(8) Church of St Paul
(9) constitution
(10) monarchy
(11) parliament
(12) Friedrich Wilhelm IV
(13) Prussia
(14) monarchs
(15) aristocracy
(16) military
(17) resisted
(18) lost their support
(19) disband
143
On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the ____ parliament convened in the ____________.
Frankfurt
| Church of St Paul.
144
On 18 May 1848 in Germany, who was offered the crown on what terms? Did he accept?
Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia was offered the crown only if he accepts the drafted constitution for a German nation headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. No, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
145
The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement. How so? What did the women do to fight against this sexism? What position did women get in the Frankfurt parliament in Germany?
The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery
146
What resulted in the years after 1848? Why?
Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not restore the old order. Monarchs were beginning to realize that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries. Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
147
In the years after _(1)_, the autocratic monarchies of Central and __(2)__ Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in __(3)__ Europe before _(4)_.
(1) 1848
(2) Eastern
(3) Western
(4) 1815
148
List some changes that were initiated by the monarchs in Eastern Europe in the years after 1848.
Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished both in the
| Habsburg dominions and in Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
149
In the years after 1848, __(1)__ and ___(2)___ were abolished both in the ___(3)___ dominions and in __(4)__. The Habsburg rulers granted more __(5)__ to the ___(6)___ in _(7)_.
(1) serfdom
(2) bonded labor
(3) Habsburg
(4) Russia
(5) autonomy
(6) Hungarians
(7) 1867
150
Nationalist sentiments were often mobilized by ___(1)___ for promoting __(2)__ and achieving _______(3)_______.
(1) conservatives
(2) state power
(3) political domination over Europe
151
What did the Germans in 1848 try to do? Did they succeed? Why or why not?
```
Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state
governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
```
152
After the failed attempt of unifying the German states, who took initiative?
From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
153
Who all were involved in the unification of the German states after 1848?
Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
154
What was the process followed by Prussia in unifying the German states?
Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
155
When, where and who was proclaimed king of united Germany?
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
156
Describe the coronation in Germany.
On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the chief minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
157
Who all were there during the coronation of Kaiser William I?
An assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the chief minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
158
What did the nation-building process in Germany
| demonstrate?
The nation-building process in Germany had
| demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power.
159
After german unification, what steps did the new state take to modernize?
The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.
160
Who was the architect in the process of german unification?
Otto von Bismarck
161
Who were the allies of German, in the process of German unification?
Austria, Denmark and France
162
How was Italy distributed before its unification?
Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional and local variations
163
Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national __(1)__ Empire. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into __(2)__ states, of which only one, ____(3)____, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under ____(4)____, the centre was ruled by the _(5)_ and the southern regions were under the domination of the _____(6)_____. Even the Italian language had not acquired one __(7)__ form and still had many regional and local ___(8)___.
(1) Habsburg
(2) seven
(3) Sardinia-Piedmont
(4) Austrian Habsburgs
(5) Pope
(6) Bourbon kings of Spain
(7) common
(8) variations
164
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification, how many states were in Italy? Name them.
Seven. Sardinia-piedmont, Lombardy, the Republics of Venice and Genoa, Modena, Parma, Tuscany, the Papal states and the Kingdom of the two Sicilies
165
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification, which was the only state ruled by an Italian princely house?
Sardinia-Piedmont
166
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification, who ruled the north?
The north was under Austrian Habsburgs
167
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification, who ruled the centre?
Pope
168
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification, who ruled the southern region?
Southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain
169
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification, where did the Austrian Habsburgs, rule?
North regions
170
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification where did the Pope rule?
Centre
171
During the middle of the nineteenth century in Italy, before unification Bourbon kings of Spain?
Southern regions
172
When did Giuseppe Mazzini attempt for revolutions in Italy? Did he succeed?
During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of his goals. This resulted in failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848.
173
After Giuseppe Mazzini, who did the people rely on to unify Italy?
The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and
1848 by Giuseppe Mazzini meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.
174
What did a unified Italy offer?
In the eyes of the ruling elites of this region, a unified
| Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance.
175
Who led the movement to unify Italy?
Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.
176
What tactic was applied by Sardinia-Piedmont's chief minister to unify Italy?
Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian. Through a tactful diplomatic
alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
177
How did Giuseppe Garibaldi help in unifying Italy?
Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
178
How was Italy successful in getting unified? When and who was proclaimed king?
Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour who spoke French much better than he did Italian, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning
the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
179
What did the illiterate population believe in Italy?
Much of the Italian population, among whom rates of illiteracy were very high, remained blissfully unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology. The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi in southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and believed that ‘La Talia’ was Victor Emmanuel’s wife.
180
What was different in the formation of Britain?
In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the
result of a long-drawn-out process.
181
Explain the diversity of the people in the British Isles.
There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
182
Which ethnic group gradually became more dominant in the British Isles?
As the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.
183
When and by whom was power seized from the monarchy in the British Isles? What role did it play in the formation of nation states?
The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its center, came to be forged.
184
When and what led to the formation of 'United Kingdom of Great Britain'? What did this lead to?
The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed. The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
185
How did Scotland suffer after the Act of Union?
- The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.
- The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence.
- The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
186
Ireland was a country deeply divided between _______ and _______.
Catholics
| Protestants
187
Which country was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants?
Ireland
188
The English helped the _______ of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely ______ country.
Protestants
| Catholic
189
Explain how Britain take over Ireland?
Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture
190
What attempted revolts were made in Ireland after British favored Protestants and by whom were these efforts made?
Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798) attempted a revolt but failed.
191
What changes were actively promoted in the united British Nation?
A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
192
Nations were portrayed by artists as _________.
female figures
193
Why were nations portrayed as female figures?
The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.
194
The female figure became an ______of the nation.
allegory
195
In the French Revolution, the attributes of Liberty were represented through the __(1)__, or the ___(2)___, while Justice is generally a ____________(3)____________.
(1) red cap
(2) broken chain
(3) blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales
196
In France, the name of the allegory was__________.
Marianne, a popular Christian name
197
Give some examples of the symbols used on Marianne. How and why was Marianne used?
Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
198
Marianne images were marked on ___ and ____.
coins
| stamps
199
What was the allegory of the German nation?
Germania
200
Give visual representations of Germania. What did it represent?
Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
201
What is an allegory?
When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic.
202
An allegorical story has two meanings, one ____ and one _____.
literal
| symbolic
203
In Germania, what did broken chains symbolize?
Being freed
204
In Germania, what did breastplate with eagle symbolize?
Symbol of the German empire – strength
205
In Germania, what did crown of oak leaves symbolize?
Heroism
206
In Germania, what did sword symbolize?
Readiness to fight
207
In Germania, what did olive branch around the sword symbolize?
Willingness to make peace
208
In Germania, what did black, red and gold tricolor symbolize?
Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the German states
209
In Germania, what did rays of the rising sun symbolize?
Beginning of a new era
210
By the last quarter of the nineteenth century nationalist groups became increasingly _____ of each other and ever ready to go to __.
intolerant
| war
211
The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after ___ was the area called the _____.
1871
| Balkans
212
The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation. What all did it comprise of?
The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
213
The Balkans were broadly known as the ____.
Slavs
214
A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the _____________.
Ottoman Empire
215
What made the Balkan region so explosive?
The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry. During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.
216
What efforts did the Ottoman Empire make to strengthen it self? Was it successful? How so?
All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms but with very little success. One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence
217
How did the Balkans justify their independance?
The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers. Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.
218
Narrate the incidents that lead to World War I.
As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry. During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and
military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.
219
The Balkan states were fiercely ______ of each other and each hoped to gain more ______ at the expense of the others
jealous
| territory
220
During the Balkan conflict, there was intense rivalry among the __(1)__ powers over __(2)__ and __(3)__ as well as __(4)__ and ____(5)____.
(1) European
(2) trade
(3) colonies
(4) naval
(5) military might
221
Nationalism, aligned with _______, led Europe to disaster in __.
imperialism
| 1914
222
Many countries in the world which had been colonized by the European powers in the nineteenth century began to oppose ____________.
imperial domination
223
The anti-imperial movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that they all struggled to form ______________, and were
inspired by a sense of ____________, forged in confrontation with imperialism.
independent nation-states
| collective national unity
