The Trait Perspective

Question 1

Types vs traits

Answer 1

Types: you are a single ‘type’ of person (may be different main types and sub-types, but you can only be one)

Traits: you can be described as having varying amounts of several traits (eg extraversion, optimism, pessimism etc)

Question 2

What are traits?

Answer 2

Distinguishing qualities or characteristics of a person
Dimension of personality used to categorise someone according to the degree to which they manifest a particular characteristic

Question 3

Assumptions

Answer 3

Personality characteristics are relatively stable over time

Personality characteristics are stable across situations

Question 4

Goals and features of the trait perspective

Answer 4

This perspective does not try to predict the behaviour of one person in a given situation
Goals are to describe behaviour typical of people at certain points along a trait continuum
Determine whether someone is high/low on a particular trait
Personality psychology, regardless of the particular perspective, used traits and trait measures

Question 5

Gordon Allport (1897-1967)

Answer 5

First acknowledged trait theorist
Believed in the individuality and uniqueness of the person and that people have consistent personalities.
Acknowledged the limitations of the trait concept.
Accepted behaviour is influenced by a variety of of environmental factors and traits are not useful for predicting what a single person will do.
Believed our traits have physical components in our nervous systems.

Question 6

Allport: personality measurement

Answer 6

Nomothetic approach: identified common personality traits. All people can be described along a single dimension of a trait.
When used, a person’s score on a trait is compared with the scores of other participants.

Idiographic approach: identifies the unique combination of traits that best accounts for the personality of a single individual.

Question 7

Allport: different types of traits

Answer 7

Cardinal: single traits which may dominate a personality and heavily influence behaviour.
Central: those 5-10 traits which best describe someone’s personality
Secondary: not core to personality, less general applicability (unlike central traits), likes and dislikes

Question 8

The essential trait approach

Answer 8

Many psychologists have tried to reduce the many traits to a few essential ones:
Cattel: 16 traits
Costa and McCrae: 5 traits
Eysenck: 3 traits
Murray: 27 'needs'

Question 9

Raymond Cattel (1905-1998)

Answer 9

Interested in identifying the basic structure of personality
Found 4500 words to describe aspects of personality.
Narrowed these down (factor analysis) to 171 trait names
Identified 16 personality factors
Personality measurement: Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)

Question 10

Cattel: sources of information about personality

Answer 10

Q-data: questionnaire data (eg self-report, personality questionnaires)
L-data: life data (information gathered about a persons life, such as school records)
T-data: test data (ie observational accounts, how people act when placed in lifelike situations)

Question 11

The Big Five

Answer 11

5 superordinate traits well supported by a wide variety of research.
Not everyone agrees on the naming of these traits.
Commonly measured by ‘NEO-PIR’

Question 12

Openness to experience

Answer 12

A willingness to consider new ideas, try new experiences.
Cultural appreciation
High scores associated with being imaginative, original, artistic, intellectual

Question 13

Conscientiousness

Answer 13

How controlled and self-disciplined we are.
High scores associated with being dependable, organised, responsible
A good predictor of job success

Question 14

Extraversion

Answer 14

High scores associated with being energetic, enthusiastic, sociable, dominant, risk-taking

Question 15

Agreeableness

Answer 15

Prefer cooperation over competition. Less likely to have arguments.
High scores associated with being friendly, cooperative, trusting and warm, altruistic

Question 16

Neuroticism

Answer 16

Emotional stability and personal adjustment.

High scores associated with being nervous, tense, moody, etc.

Question 17

Cross-cultural applicability: the Big Five

Answer 17

Ashton and Lee (2007) found evidence for an honesty-humility dimension in non-English speaking cultures

Question 18

The Big Five and the Workplace

Answer 18

Conscientiousness is the best predictor of workplace performance.
Agreeableness?
Issues: faking, response tendencies (social desirability), employee perceptions, assessment versus testing etc.

Question 19

Eysenck’ Big Three Factors

Answer 19

1. Extraversion
2. Neuroticism
3. Psychoticism (tendency towards psychopathology - which involves impulsivity and cruelty)

Question 20

Henry Murray (1893-1988): Needs

Answer 20

Primary (viscerogenic) needs: eg food, water, air, sex, avoidance of pain
Secondary (psychogenic) needs (27): readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances. eg achievement, dominance, affiliation, nurturance, rejection

Needs are ordered in a hierarchical order depending on the strength of needs, differs from person to person

Personality measurement: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Question 21

Murray: Needs - Assumption

Answer 21

Behaviour is driven by an internal state of disequilibrium

Question 22

Specific Needs: Murray

Answer 22

Need for power: a need for dominance (to influence or control others, to lead and direct etc). May be insecure, like to accumulate possessions.

Needs for affiliation: a need to form friendships, be part of groups and to win the affection of others (ie need to have friends and please them). Associated with being extroverted (seeking contact), consciousness (dependable), and agreeable (friendly).

Question 23

Achievement Motivation: Murray

Answer 23

The desire to accomplish something difficult, to master, manipulate or organise, to overcome obstacles and attain a high standard to excel one’s self.

The need to attain a high standard and to be driven to succeed on tasks that are set out by society.

Question 24

Implicit vs self-attributed achievement motivation

Answer 24

Implicit: we are not aware of it. Spontaneous actions.
Self-attributed (explicit): motive we can readily describe. Occurs when we have time to ponder achievement options and decisions

Question 25

Achievement motivation: characteristics

Answer 25

Moderate risk takers: they want to succeed but are also highly motivated to avoid failure.
Work hard at tasks with potential for personal achievement.
Enjoy tasks which give them personal responsibility for outcomes - want credit for success but are also willing to accept blame for failure.

Question 26

Achievement goals

Answer 26

Provide targets that people aspire to in achievement situations.
Mastery goals: concerned with developing competence.
Performance goals: concerned with developing accomplishments to others.
Approach goals: want to achieve goal
Avoidance: want to avoid failure

Question 27

Emotions

Answer 27

Traits are relatively stable, but emotions fluctuate
However, we can generally identify relatively stable patterns in emotions as well in the following areas:
1. Affectivity
2. Intensity
3. Expressiveness

Question 28

Emotional affectivity

Answer 28

Positive affect: at one extreme we find such emotions as active, content and satisfied, at the other extreme we see sad and lethargic.
Related to social activity and relationships.

Negative affect: one extreme we find nervousness, anger, and distress. Other extreme see calm and serene. Related to psychological distress and poorer physical health.

Measurements: self-report inventories like the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS)

Question 29

Affect intensity

Answer 29

Refers to the strength or degree to which people typically experience their emotions. (ie mild reactions (even-tempered) or more extreme reactions (very high and very low levels of positive mood))
Applies to both positive and negative emotions.

Question 30

Emotional Expressiveness

Answer 30

Refers to a person’s outward display of emotions, how much they display their emotions (Non-verbal cues, such as tone and body language)
High expressiveness associated with better health
Extraversion is one trait which can be readily seen in an individual’s expressive style
People who are more expressive also tend to be more dominant, impulsive and popular

Question 31

Optimism

Answer 31

People are relatively consistent as to whether they view the world in a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) light.
This is referred to as dispositional optimism. Optimists are more likely to achieve goals, handle stressors more effectively, respond more favourably to adversity and experience better health.
Measurement: Life Orientation Test

Question 32

Seligman’s model of optimism

Answer 32

Suggests optimism can be learned
ABC format:
A: adversity
B: beliefs about adversity
C: consequences of such beliefs
The key to learning optimism is in the formation of beliefs about adversity (point of intervention)

Question 33

Traits and behaviour

Answer 33

Critics have charged that traits do not predict behaviour well and that there is little evidence for cross-situational consistency
Advocates say if measured correctly, a significant relationship between traits and behaviour can be found. Also maintain the amount of behaviour variance explained by traits is considerable and important

Question 34

Personality assessment: trait perspective

Answer 34

Self-report assessment
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Some problems exists: faking, carelessness, sabotage and response tendencies

Question 35

Type A people

Answer 35

Hostile
Early research found a strong link between Type A behaviour and heart attacks
Later studies did not always find this
Hostility could be related to cardiovascular problems though

Question 36

Shy people

Answer 36

Tend to be self-conscious during social encounters
Reluctant to ask others for help
Often interpret feedback from their conversation partners as rejection
Suffer from evaluation apprehension: Shy people avoid negative evaluation by limiting their social interactions