Theme 1: Memory in Everyday Life

Question 1

What is the difference between misinformation and disinformation?

Answer 1

disinformation is intentional, misinformation is usually not

Question 2

What is the misinformation effect?

Answer 2

exposing people to misinformation negatively affects their memory of previous knowledge

Question 3

what is the continued influence effect?

Answer 3

misinformation can still influence people after it’s withdrawn

Question 4

What are 4 ways of correcting misinformation?

Answer 4

warnings, linking related articles, providing additional information about current article, and stimulating reflection

Question 5

name the 10 properties of the internet according to Marsh & Rajaram (2019)

Answer 5

1. unlimited scope of info
2. inaccurate info
3. rapidly changing content
4. distractions & choices
5. widespread access
6. need to actively search
7. fast results
8. ability to create/edit content
9. undisclosed source information
10. interpersonal connections

Question 6

what are source misattributions?

Answer 6

memories from one source are misattributed to past experience

Question 7

what is an illusory truth?

Answer 7

when repeating a statement increases belief in it

Question 8

what is the save/erase paradigm? what does research say about it (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)?

Answer 8

the paradigm states that offloading memories impairs their encoding
there might be contradictory findings because people might not trust individual electronic devices, but don’t believe in absolute erasure of content from the internet

Question 9

explain the levels of processing effect

Answer 9

drawing people’s attention to perceptual or phonological information impairs semantic memory

Question 10

how does the internet encourage shallow processing accoring to Marsh & Rajaram (2019)?

Answer 10

1. it offers people too many choices that cause high mental load
2. it impairs comprehension, as reading from screens is tiring & people likely read sentences in mixed order

Question 11

in what way does internet use become habitual (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)?

Answer 11

people with internet acces are less willing to rely on their own memories

Question 12

____ information inflates one’s confidence in their knowledge, while ____ information doesn’t (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)

Answer 12

searching for, finding

Question 13

What are JOLs, FOKs, and FOFs (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)?

Answer 13

JOLs → one’s prediction that they will remember recently learning information
FOKs → estimates of one’s ability to retrieve information from memory
feeling of findability (FOFs) → one’s sense of how easily they can find the desired information (don’t correlate with FOKs)

Question 14

What is the difference between JOLs, FOKs, and FOLs (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)?

Answer 14

metacognitive awareness is usually assessed using JOLs and FOKs, but using the internet may require a different form of metacognitive awareness (aka, FOLs)

Question 15

is the internet likelier to contain misinformation (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)?

Answer 15

yes - everchanging environment with low credibility sources & superficial use/communication

Question 16

how does the internet influence autobiographical memory (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)?

Answer 16

it can become more positive if we choose to post only psitive life events

Question 17

What is meant by the phrase “the internet increases information appropriation” (Marsh & Rajaram, 2019)?

Answer 17

if the search for info is easy, people misinterpret the ideas of others as their own

Question 18

What is the role of the hippocampus in memory (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 18

it encodes relations to support episodic memory and spatial navigation

Question 19

What is a cognitive map (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 19

the internal representation of spatial relations in an environment

Question 20

What is a spatial gist (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 20

a summary of various related cognitive maps, minus perceptual details

Question 21

What is a spatial schema (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 21

the integration of multiple gists

it is independent of specific environments & of the hippocampus

Question 22

explain what pattern separation is (Farzafar et al., 2022)

Answer 22

it keeps cognitive maps and gists distinct from one another (but they can still work with schemas to aid in navigation)

Question 23

what is a paired associate task (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 23

a paradigm for learning and remembering associations between stimuli that are artificially associated

Question 24

describe the following paired associate task described by Farzafar et al. (2022) and what the findings were

Answer 24

1. Rats have to dig to get the pellet. We know that rats create a schema when they look again for the pellets in the same location.
2. Rat is shown one pellet and they have to locate the one with the same flavour pellet. This is done with all flavour pellets.
3. new flavour pellets are added in new locations to see how it influences their spatial schema. A single exposure is enough to update schema

Question 25

What has been infered about rats with lesioned HPCs using the village maze paradigm (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 25

they use stable room geometry rather than distal or surface cues to navigate to correct goal locations

Question 26

the process of activity shifting from the ____ to the ____ for memory retriveal is called ____ (Farzafar et al., 2022)

Answer 26

HPC, PFC, semanticisation/consolidation

Question 27

how can individuals with hippocampal amnesia navigate familiar environments (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 27

through retained schematic forms of spatial representation ## Footnote Semantic representations or spatial schemas exist independently of the HPC

Question 28

Schematised spatial memories primarily include ____ properties rather than ____ properties (Farzafar et al., 2022)

Answer 28

geometric, surface

Question 29

Fill in the blacks (area & function)

Answer 29

Question 30

explain the process of memory consolidation (Farzafar et al., 2022)

Answer 30

transient detailed memories originating in the HPC become stabilised, generalised representations in neocortical regions

Question 31

what do concept cells encode?

Answer 31

representations of specific persons or landmarks

Question 32

what are geometric features & what is the purpose of geometric resemblance? (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 32

Geometric features are the 3D structural features of an environment. Geometric resemblance guides the generalisation of spatial learning of locations

Question 33

what is remapping in place cells (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 33

the change in firing when geometric or surface features are modified - allows us to recognise same environment from different angles or different environments with similar features

Question 34

what are hidden state inferences (Farzafar et al., 2022)?

Answer 34

the sum of stored representations & sensory information guiding assumptions about our environment

Question 35

similarly to semantic knowledge, spatial representations are prone to ____ and are ____ organised

Answer 35

systematic biases, hierarchically

Question 36

how does the retrosplenial cortex (RSC) aid spatial navigation (Farfazar et al., 2022)?

Answer 36

it encodes common features of routes & distances in well known locations, and integrates egocentric and allocentric spatial frames of reference

Question 37

the aHPC creates a ____ to encode ____ spaces the pHPC creates a ____ to encode ____ spaces

Answer 37

global code, large outdoor local code, small/junction

Question 38

the key feature of environments that allows for generalisation of spatial representations is...

Answer 38

geometric resemblance

Question 39

which are the 2 main mechanisms of forgetting (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)?

Answer 39

interference (majority of influence) and decay

Question 40

name the 6 possible reasons for forgetting (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)

Answer 40

1. decay 2. interference 3. ineffective cues 4. inhibition ( instructed forgetting or change in mental context) 5. selective retrieval 6. suppressed retrieval (one memory overpowers another)

Question 41

what is the retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) effect (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)?

Answer 41

retrieval of a target memory is made easier at the cost of rendering competitors harder to recall

Question 42

what is the suppression-induced forgetting (SIF) effect (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)?

Answer 42

retrieval of a target memory is impaired after repeatedly suppressing its recall

Question 43

In what ways does forgetting act as a guardian (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)?

Answer 43

it allows us to avoid negative past emotions & find stability by removing details inconsistent with our self- and world-views

Question 44

In what ways does forgetting act as a librarian (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)?

Answer 44

it reduces mental clutter, updates experiences and memories with new information to maximise relevance and minimise competition, & creates generalised memories that can be flexibly applied to novel situations

Question 45

In what ways does forgetting act as an inventor (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)?

Answer 45

Selective forgetting weakens mental fixation, facilitating relearning & the differentiation of existing memory representations Also, rediscovery of previously thought solutions optimises reward states

Question 46

What method can be helpful for patients with PTSD or addiction disorders according to Fawcett & Hulbert (2020)?

Answer 46

Memory reconsolidation → active retrieval updates our memories and attenuates the impact of unwanted ones

Question 47

what is the forgetting-fixation hypothesis (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)?

Answer 47

new perspective can be achieved by breaking circular thinking (i.e., creativity is enhanced by reducing mental fixation)

Question 48

explain the time-capsule paradigm (Fawcett & Hulbert, 2020)

Answer 48

people generally underestimate the pleasure, interest, and curiosity associated with rediscovering ordinary, forgotten experiences