Theories Flashcards
Quals Preparation
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance (1957) is a socio-psychological theory that is focused on the communicator’s cognitive elements which include attitudes, perceptions, knowledge, and behaviors. Festinger argues that dissonance between the cognitive elements creates stress within the individual, the individual will seek change in order to mitigate or eliminate the dissonance. In order to eliminate or mitigate the dissonance the individual will react by changing behavior or ideas or avoiding the situation that creates the dissonance.
Standpoint Theory
Wood and Houston (1992) propose that an individual’s circumstances affect how that individual understands and constructs a social world. Standpoint is reflective of social and political forces and is achieved through reflection power relationships within society.
Symbolic Interactionism
Originally propose by George Mead, SI proposes that as individual interact with one another over time they being to share meaning (both words and actions) and come to understand event in similar ways. Through human interaction meaning is co-created. The self is an important social object that is developed through social interaction (Berger and Luckmann), and as the self develops he/she develops interacts with others and also contributes to the development others.
Burke’s theory of identification (A Rhetoric of Motives 1969)
Kenneth Burke believes that human beings are symbol using and misusing animals. Humans according to Burke use symbols to give meaning to the world and to communicate that meaning to others. When symbols create common understanding, identification occurs. Identification can be a means to persuasion. Burke uses the term Consubstantiality to refer to the process by which as identification increases, shared meaning increases, which in turn improves understanding between the audience and the speaker.
Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm (1984-1987)
Walter Fisher’s theory centers around four philosophical ideas: (1) understanding humankind as Homo narrans; (2) all forms of human communication need to be understood as stories (symbolic interpretations of the world, shaped by history, culture, and character) (3) stories should be understood as “good reasons”— value-laden warrants for behavior; and (4) that narrative logic (individuated or culture-specific) should be understood as logic by which human communication is judged. Within this framework, rationality shifts to the context of storytelling and is measured by Narrative fidelity (the story “rings” true with other stories accepted as true) and Narrative probability (is the story presented a coherent story that make sense of and explains the world.)
Speech Act Theory (1969)
John Searle’s theory helps us understand how individuals accomplish things with words. Searle believes that words carry concrete meaning and when they are use the produce concrete actions. There are four stages of a communication that reflect its power and show action: (1) a utterance act – the pronunciation of words; (2) a propositional act – the utterance asserts something about the world, saying something the speaker believes is true; (3) an illocutionary act – the utterance fulfills an intention; (4) a perlocutionary act – the utterance is designed to have an effect on the other person behavior.
Anxiety-Uncertainty Management Theory (1985)
Develop by W. Gudykunst, this theory focuses on how individuals manage uncertainty and anxiety in intercultural situations. According to Gudyknust, there several variables that affect the level of anxiety and uncertainty that an individual experiences in interpersonal interactions/relationships. These variables multiply when these interactions occur within intercultural situations. For example, an individual from a high-context culture will rely more on circumstances and/or setting to interpret an event or interaction, while an individual from a low-context culture will rely more on the explicit verbal content of the conversation. Additionally, the individuals personal commitment to the with the cultural group of origin will affect his/her interaction with individuals of other groups. Ultimately, an individual’s ability to reduce his/her anxiety and uncertainty lies in his/her knowledge of the other culture, which equips the individual to navigate the differences and communicate with a certain level of effectiveness.
Co-cultural Theory (1996)
Developed by Orbe, this theory of communication focuses on the conversations between individuals from minority or marginalized group and members of the dominant culture, which Orbe has termed as co-cultural groups. This theory focuses on the conversation from the marginalized individual’s perspective. This theory is based on five assumptions: 1) certain groups within a society have a privileged place; 2) members of the dominant group occupy positions of power that allow them to perpetuate their power; 3) the systems of communication used by the dominant group help exclude minority individuals from power; 4) co-cultural groups have in common their exclusion from power; 5) co-cultural individuals strategically communicate to negotiate with the dominant system. Orbe has identified 26 co-cultural communication practices, which include averting controversy, overcompensating, avoiding, and attacking.
Identity Management Theory (2005)
Imahori and Cupach have developed a theory that helps us understand how identities are established, maintained and changed in relationships. A desired identity is called “face” and what we do to establish our face is “facework”. This theory is primarily used to explain intercultural relationships and describes how individuals negotiate face with their cross-cultural partners. When someone’s face is threaten he/she will: 1) highlight a positive aspect of their cultural identity; 2) use humor not to offend in response; 3) model support for the conversation partner; 4) avoiding the offending person. Another important aspect of the of IMT is the concept of positive-negative face dialectic. This idea refers to the tension that occurs when a partner wants to affirm a cultural value of the other partner but trying to avoid stereotyping. Imahori identifies three stages of a intercultural relationship that correspond to identity management: Trial, Enmeshment, Renegotiation.
Relational Patterns of Interaction (1967)
A product of the Palo Alto Group, this theory explains how through communication individuals define their relationships based on the expectation that we create for ourselves and the other individual in the relationship. As relationships evolve the patterns of interaction change in correlation to the changes in the relationship. This theory is grounded in the idea that all behavior is communicative, thus humans “cannot not communicate.” Littlejohn and Foss classify this theory within the cybernetic tradition because of its emphasis on how relationships are formed systematically through interactions over a period of time.
Structuration Theory (1976)
- A. Giddens a sociologist argues that human beings through ordinary activities produce and reproduce different social systems or structures. At the center of this process is the ordinary communication that occurs between individuals. Through communication with one another we create structures (patterns of value and norms) which include social and cultural institutions and small individual and familial relationships. Thus structuration theory is a theory of social action. It is this social action that shapes group roles and norms, communication networks, relational expectations, etc. These structures provide rules that guide individual action; however, individual actions create new rules and reproduce old ones.
Adaptive Structuration Theory (1994)
Adaptive Structuration Theory is based on Anthony Giddens’ structuration theory. This theory is formulated as “the production and reproduction of the social systems through members’ use of rules and resources in interaction”. DeSanctis and Poole adapted Giddens’ theory to study the interaction of groups and organizations with information technology, and called it Adaptive Structuration Theory. AST criticizes the technocentric view of technology use and emphasizes the social aspects. Groups and organizations using information technology for their work dynamically create perceptions about the role and utility of the technology, and how it can be applied to their activities. These perceptions can vary widely across groups. These perceptions influence the way how technology is used and hence mediate its impact on group outcomes.
Bona Fide Groups (1990)
Putman and Stohl developed this theory to describe groups that are 1) naturally occurring groups; 2) have permeable boundaries; 3) interdependent with the environment. More than a type of group, bona fide groups is a perspective on understanding groups. From this perspective bona fide groups are constantly influence by its environment and it constantly affects the environment in which it operates. Bona fide groups are constantly interacting with other groups. The place in which groups interact is called a nexus. It is in the nexus that the interdependability of a bona fide group is most evident.
Network Theory (2003)
Network Theory represents a body of work within the cybernetic tradition that focuses on patterns of communication within organizations. Monge and Contractor describe Networks as social structures created by communication among individuals and groups. Networks can be formal and emergent (informal), and are sustained by the connectedness among individuals in the network. Organizations have several networks within them, personal, group, and organizational networks.
Organizational Control Theory (1983-85)
Tompkins and Cheney argue that ordinary communication establishes control over employees. Control is manifested in several ways: simple control (direct use of power), technical control (use of technology to control), bureaucratic control (policies and procedures), cultural control (values and common practices), concertive control (the use of interpersonal and teamwork relationships which are based on shared reality and values).
