Theories

Question 1

Who developed Accommodation Theory?

Answer 1

Howard Giles

Question 2

What does Accommodation Theory suggest?

Answer 2

That we adjust our speech to accommodate to others.

Question 3

What is a divergence in speech?

Answer 3

When your speech moves further apart

Question 4

What is a convergence in speech?

Answer 4

When your speech moves further together

Question 5

What does Norman Fairclough’s theory of synthetic personalisation discuss?

Answer 5

Using personal pronouns and inclusive language to address mass audiences

Question 6

What does Norman Fairclough’s theory of informalisation discuss?

Answer 6

Using relaxed language in a social environment to make it more comfortable. He argues that language has become more formal over time, with a conversational tone.

Question 7

What does Fairclough’s theory of unequal encounters discuss?

Answer 7

That in every conversation there is a power struggle/power asymmetry.

Question 8

What does Trudgill and Lokoff’s Prestige theory discuss?

Answer 8

That women tend to use overt prestige and men tend to use covert prestige in their discourse.

Question 9

What can we evaluate about the Prestige theory?

Answer 9

It is outdated - context is more important than gender.

Question 10

What does the Cooperative Principle of Grice discuss?

Answer 10

Grice said the cooperative principle involves maxims that people follow when talking to each other in order for communication to flow smoothly.

Question 11

What are Grice’s four maxims?

Answer 11

Quantity, quality, relevance/relation and manner.

Question 12

What is the difference between flouting and violating Grice’s maxims?

Answer 12

To flout is to deliberately break a maxim where those concerned are aware. To violate is to break a maxim and one person not be aware of it - this could be the speaker or those involved in the discourse.

Question 13

What is an implicature?

Answer 13

Where an implied meaning arises through flouting a maxim.

Question 14

What does Aristotle’s Rhetoric Theory discuss?

Answer 14

He said language of rhetoric is a way of convincing others and having good communication with other people.

Question 15

How did Aristotle say persuasion is achieved via?

Answer 15

Ethos, pathos, logos and kairos.

Question 16

What did Goffman’s theory of ‘facework’ discuss?

Answer 16

That when we talk to others, we have the potential to save or break face.

Question 17

What is positive face?

Answer 17

Reflects an individuals need for his or her wishes and desires to be appreciated in a social context. This is the maintenance of a positive and consistent self-image.

Question 18

How is positive face shown?

Answer 18

Compliments, common ground and agreeing

Question 19

What is negative face?

Answer 19

Reflects an individuals need for freedom of action, freedom from imposition, and the right to make one’s decisions (independence). The need to not be imposed upon.

Question 20

How is negative face shown?

Answer 20

Making requests, suggestions or giving warnings

Question 21

What happens when we break face?

Answer 21

We create a face-threatening act. This is where what is said could potentially undermine the positive or negative face of the speaker, the hearer or both.

Question 22

What happens when we save face?

Answer 22

We create a face-saving act. This is where we meet the requirements of both positive and negative face needs of the speaker, the hearer or both.

Question 23

What is positive politeness?

Answer 23

Where we use language to show solidarity with the addressee. Positive politeness achieves positive facework. E.g. complimenting others, agreeing with them, having common ground, avoiding conflict.

Question 24

How is positive politeness broken?

Answer 24

Threats, insults, belittling the reader.

Question 25

What is negative politeness?

Answer 25

When we use language to show respect to the addressee - such as hedging and apologising. E.g. requests, giving advice, suggestions, warnings.

Question 26

How is negative politeness broken?

Answer 26

If not said in a polite way or if the request is unacceptable.

Question 27

What is off the record politeness?

Answer 27

This includes indirect speech acts where an implicature arises. E.g. ‘Wow, it’s getting cold now…’

Question 28

What is bald on record politeness?

Answer 28

This is a direct way communicating. Therefore, face threatening acts usually occur if the tenor is distant. Very often, it uses imperatives. E.g. I’m cold. Close the window.

Question 29

What is opt out politeness?

Answer 29

Saying nothing. E.g. If you want to borrow your friend’s homework, but don’t want to threaten their face, you may choose not to ask at all and opt out of the request entirely.

Question 30

What does Eckert and McConnell-Ginet’s community of practice theory discusses?

Answer 30

They have said that social identities often lead to community of practices where there is a shared collaborative goal.