Theories Flashcards
(190 cards)
1
Q
Who are the two main founders of Functionalism?
A
Émile Durkheim and Auguste Comte.
2
Q
What is the Structural Consensus Approach in Functionalism?
A
A view that society’s institutions (e.g. education, religion, media) work harmoniously to maintain social order and stability. It focuses on shared norms and values known as social facts.
3
Q
What are social facts according to Durkheim?
A
Norms, values, and structures that exist outside the individual but influence behaviour and interactions. They exert social control and shape individual actions.
4
Q
What is the Top-Down Theory in Functionalism?
A
A macro perspective where society shapes the individual, not the other way around. Individual actions are largely determined by societal structures.
5
Q
What is Durkheim’s concept of the collective conscience?
A
A shared set of beliefs and values that bind individuals together and create social solidarity.
6
Q
What is Durkheim’s view on the function of crime?
A
Crime has a positive function — it clarifies boundaries, strengthens social norms, and can prompt social change.
7
Q
What are the two types of solidarity according to Durkheim?
A
- Mechanical Solidarity – found in traditional societies with shared values and tasks.
- Organic Solidarity – found in modern societies with specialised roles and mutual interdependence.
8
Q
What is ‘anomie’ and how did Durkheim use it?
A
A state of normlessness where individuals feel disconnected due to rapid social change. Linked to higher suicide rates and feelings of purposelessness.
9
Q
What is Parsons’ organic analogy?
A
Parsons compared society to the human body: just as organs work together to sustain life, institutions work together to maintain societal stability.
10
Q
What are the three parts of Parsons’ organic analogy?
A
- Functions – Institutions perform specific roles (e.g. family socialises, economy provides resources).
- Systems – Society is made of interrelated systems (e.g. legal, educational, familial).
- System Needs – Just like the body needs oxygen and food, society has functional prerequisites.
11
Q
What are Parsons’ four functional prerequisites (GAIL model)?
A
- Goal Attainment – Society must set and achieve goals.
- Adaptation – Society must provide for material needs.
- Integration – Institutions must cooperate and maintain harmony.
- Latency – Society must maintain and transmit shared values.
12
Q
What are manifest and latent functions according to Merton?
A
• Manifest Functions – Intended and recognised effects of institutions.
• Latent Functions – Unintended and often hidden effects that can still be significant.
13
Q
What is Merton’s idea of functional alternatives?
A
There is not always one indispensable institution — different structures can perform the same function (e.g. school and workplace both socialise individuals).
14
Q
What is functional unity and how did Merton criticise it?
A
Traditional functionalism assumes all parts of society are interconnected. Merton argued that some parts operate independently and are not always tightly linked.
15
Q
What is Merton’s criticism of universal functionalism?
A
Not every structure is beneficial. Merton introduced the concept of dysfunctions — elements of society that may harm rather than help social stability.
16
Q
What is meant by the net balance of functional effects?
A
Sociologists should weigh both the functional and dysfunctional effects of a social structure to understand its overall impact.
17
Q
What are the logical criticisms of functionalism?
A
• Teleological reasoning – Assumes institutions exist because they serve a function, which confuses cause and effect.
• Scientific criticism – Functionalism cannot be easily tested or falsified, so it lacks scientific rigour.
18
Q
What is the conflict theory critique of functionalism?
A
• Marxists and feminists argue that it ignores inequality, power struggles, and exploitation.
• Functionalism is seen as overly optimistic and conservative, justifying the status quo.
19
Q
What is the action theory/interactionist critique of functionalism?
A
Functionalism is too deterministic — it ignores the role of individual agency and how people interpret their actions.
20
Q
What is the postmodernist critique of functionalism?
A
Functionalism is a meta-narrative that oversimplifies society. Postmodernists argue society is now too diverse and fragmented for functionalist analysis to be relevant.
21
Q
Define social facts.
A
Norms, values, and structures that exist outside the individual but constrain behaviour and shape social life (Durkheim).
22
Q
Define collective conscience.
A
The shared beliefs and values of a society that unite individuals and promote social solidarity (Durkheim).
23
Q
Define anomie.
A
A breakdown of norms leading to a sense of normlessness, purposelessness, and social instability.
24
Q
Define functional prerequisites.
A
Basic needs that a society must meet to survive, such as socialisation, goal setting, and value transmission (Parsons’ GAIL model).
25
Define manifest function.
The obvious, intended purpose of a social institution or action (Merton).
26
Define latent function.
The hidden, unintended consequences of a social institution or action (Merton).
27
Define dysfunction.
A negative consequence of a social institution or behaviour that disrupts society (Merton).
28
What is historical materialism in Marxist theory?
The idea that material needs (food, shelter, etc.) and how we produce them shape society. Social change is driven by class conflict over these resources.
29
What is economic determinism?
The belief that the economic base (how goods are produced and who owns them) determines all other aspects of society, including culture, politics, and ideology.
30
What is the Marxist model of base and superstructure?
• Economic Base: Means of production and relations of production.
• Superstructure: Institutions (e.g. education, media, law) that reflect and reinforce the base, spreading bourgeois ideology.
31
What is the role of the superstructure in capitalism?
It maintains and legitimizes bourgeois power by spreading ruling class ideas and norms through institutions like education and religion.
32
What are the 6 historical modes of production according to Marx?
1. Primitive Communism – classless, communal sharing
2. Slave Society – ruling class owns slaves
3. Feudalism – nobles own land, peasants work in return for protection
4. Capitalism – bourgeoisie own production, workers sell labour
5. Socialism – state owns means of production, less private ownership
6. Communism – classless, stateless society with shared resources
33
What is alienation in capitalism?
Workers are separated from the products of their labour and feel powerless, disconnected, and exploited.
34
What is false class consciousness?
The proletariat’s failure to recognize their exploitation, believing capitalist ideology (e.g. meritocracy) and accepting inequality as natural.
35
What is the role of the repressive state apparatus (RSA)?
Institutions like the police, military, and justice system enforce order and protect ruling class interests through coercion.
36
What are Marx’s 3 main features of capitalism?
1. Alienation – detachment from work and its products
2. Concentration of means of production – controlled by bourgeoisie
3. Exploitation – low wages for workers, high profits for owners
37
What are 4 key criticisms of classical Marxism?
1. Oversimplification – ignores class diversity; modern society has more than two classes
2. Economic determinism – underestimates cultural and political influences
3. Outdated meta-narrative – ignores individual agency and postmodern complexity
4. Revolution hasn’t occurred – Marx’s prediction of proletarian revolt hasn’t materialised
38
What was Althusser’s main critique of classical Marxism?
It was too simplistic (base → superstructure). He proposed a more complex, structured model of society with three interrelated levels.
39
What are Althusser’s three levels of society?
1. Economic Level – production of goods and satisfaction of needs
2. Political Level – systems and repressive state apparatuses (e.g. law, police)
3. Ideological Level – norms, values, ideological state apparatus (e.g. education, media)
40
What analogy did Craib use to explain Althusser’s model?
A three-story building:
• Ground floor = economic (shop/work)
• Middle floor = political (management/organisation)
• Top floor = ideological (living quarters/values)
41
What are criticisms of Althusser’s structural Neo-Marxism?
• Overcomplicates Marx’s theory
• Discourages activism by implying structure is fixed
• Seen as elitist, suggesting people are controlled and lack agency
42
What is Gramsci’s key contribution to Marxism?
The concept of hegemony – the ruling class maintains power through ideological control and consent, not just coercion.
43
What is dual consciousness according to Gramsci?
The working class is partly aware of their exploitation but often still accepts ruling class ideology due to its dominance and normalisation.
44
What is the role of organic intellectuals in Gramsci’s theory?
Educated working-class individuals who raise class consciousness and lead movements for social change (e.g. Greta Thunberg, Malcolm X).
45
How is humanistic Neo-Marxism evaluated?
• Strength: Acknowledges individual agency and possibility of resistance
• Criticism: Underestimates the power of repressive state structures to suppress revolution
46
What do liberal feminists believe about society?
Society is generally fair, but inequalities between men and women still exist due to outdated laws, policies, and attitudes.
47
What causes patriarchy according to liberal feminists?
Discrimination in education, work, and politics; historical exclusion of women; and enduring stereotypes and expectations (e.g. appearance or caregiving roles).
48
How do liberal feminists believe patriarchy should be dealt with?
Through gradual reform — changing laws, improving policies (e.g. equal pay, childcare, flexible work), and promoting education to challenge gender stereotypes.
49
What are criticisms of liberal feminism?
• Too focused on working within the current system
• Ignores deeper structural oppression
• Doesn’t fully address violence or bodily autonomy
• Seen as prioritising white, middle-class women’s experiences
50
What do radical feminists believe about society?
Society is fundamentally patriarchal and structured to benefit men and oppress women in all areas — family, work, education, politics, and culture.
51
What causes patriarchy according to radical feminists?
Men’s desire to control women, especially through institutions like marriage, family, and via sexual violence (e.g. rape, domestic abuse).
52
How do radical feminists believe patriarchy should be dealt with?
Dismantling patriarchal structures, rejecting traditional family roles, creating women-only spaces, and securing bodily autonomy through rights like abortion and contraception.
53
What are criticisms of radical feminism?
• Blames all men, oversimplifying oppression
• Seen as extreme or unrealistic
• Alienates male allies
• Ignores race, class, and sexuality (criticised by intersectional feminists)
54
What do Marxist feminists believe about society?
Society is shaped by capitalism, which exploits women both in the workplace and at home. Patriarchy and capitalism work together to oppress women.
55
What causes patriarchy according to Marxist feminists?
Capitalism relies on women’s unpaid domestic labour and low-paid work. This creates economic dependence and reinforces male power.
56
How do Marxist feminists believe patriarchy should be dealt with?
By replacing capitalism with socialism, valuing unpaid domestic labour, and creating an economy that treats all work fairly and equally.
57
What are criticisms of Marxist feminism?
• Overemphasis on class and economics
• Neglects patriarchy outside capitalism
• Ignores race, sexuality, and other forms of oppression
• Considered too radical by liberal feminists
58
What do intersectional feminists believe about society?
Society is shaped by overlapping systems of oppression — e.g. patriarchy, racism, classism, ableism, and homophobia — affecting women in different ways.
59
What causes patriarchy according to intersectional feminists?
Patriarchy operates alongside other inequalities, so women’s experiences vary by race, class, sexuality, etc. Oppression is layered and contextual.
60
How do intersectional feminists believe patriarchy should be dealt with?
By addressing all forms of inequality together — advocating for inclusive education, policy reform, and diverse representation in leadership and decision-making.
61
What are criticisms of intersectional feminism?
• Can be too complex and hard to apply in practice
• May weaken unity of the feminist movement
• Focuses too much on differences and not enough on shared gender-based oppression
62
How did Weber acknowledge the role of structure in shaping behaviour?
Weber recognised that societal institutions influence individuals’ worldviews and actions. He explored how religious beliefs, like Calvinism, shaped work ethic and capitalism.
63
What example did Weber give of structure influencing action?
In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Calvinists believed in predestination and saw hard work and reinvestment as signs of being among the “elect”, unintentionally encouraging capitalist values.
64
What is a modern example of structural influence on behaviour?
The gig economy (e.g. Uber, Deliveroo) promotes flexibility and autonomy, reshaping how individuals see themselves—not as employees, but as independent contractors.
65
What is Verstehen and why is it important in sociology?
Verstehen means empathetic understanding of individuals’ subjective meanings and motives. Weber believed understanding meaning behind actions is key to studying society.
66
What are the two types of Verstehen identified by Weber?
1. Aktuelles Verstehen – Direct observation of an action’s purpose (e.g. raising a hand in class = wants to speak).
2. Erklärendes Verstehen – Deeper empathetic understanding of underlying motives (e.g. volunteering due to belief in altruism).
67
How does Verstehen relate to modern research methods?
It aligns with qualitative methods like ethnography and interviews, which seek to understand participants’ lived experiences and meanings.
68
What are Weber’s four types of social action?
1. Instrumental Rational Action – Goal-oriented and efficient behaviour
2. Value Rational Action – Driven by deeply held values
3. Traditional Action – Based on customs and habits
4. Affectual Action – Motivated by emotions
69
What is an example of instrumental rational action?
A business automating production to cut costs, or influencers using algorithms for engagement.
70
What is an example of value rational action?
Fasting during Ramadan or adopting a zero-waste lifestyle for ethical reasons.
71
What is an example of traditional action?
Celebrating Christmas with gifts, or wearing cultural clothing during festivals.
72
What is an example of affectual action?
Mourning at a vigil, or reacting emotionally to political scandals on social media.
73
What does Weber’s social action theory contribute to sociology?
It bridges structure and agency, offers nuanced types of action, and values subjective meaning through Verstehen.
74
What is Alfred Schutz’s criticism of Weber?
Weber focuses too much on individual meaning but ignores shared social meanings, like how symbols become commonly understood.
75
What is a criticism about categorising actions?
The four types are ambiguous—the same action (e.g. donating to charity) might fall into multiple categories (value-based or emotional).
76
What do Marxist critics say about Weber’s theory?
It ignores power structures and how shared meanings often serve the interests of the ruling class, e.g. capitalist norms in workplaces.
77
What is the central belief of Symbolic Interactionism?
Individuals act based on the meanings they assign to people, situations, and symbols. These meanings are formed and changed through social interaction.
78
What did Herbert Blumer say about human behaviour?
People act based on the meanings things have for them, and those meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation.
79
Give an example of changing meanings in interaction.
Shaking hands traditionally signifies greeting or agreement, but during COVID-19, its meaning changed—elbow bumps or nods replaced it, reflecting evolving norms.
80
What is role-taking and who developed the idea?
George Herbert Mead proposed that individuals learn to see themselves from others’ perspectives through role-taking, which is essential for socialisation.
81
How does role-taking develop?
Through imitative play in childhood (e.g. pretending to be a parent or doctor), children learn social roles and expectations, helping them understand societal norms.
82
What is the looking glass self?
A concept by Charles Horton Cooley that explains how self-image is shaped by how we think others see us.
83
What are the three stages of the looking glass self?
1. Imagining how we appear to others
2. Interpreting their reactions
3. Adjusting our self-concept based on those perceptions
84
Give an example of the looking glass self in action.
If a student believes a teacher sees them as intelligent, they may work harder and perform better. A negative label, like “lazy”, could reduce effort or motivation.
85
What is Goffman’s dramaturgical model?
Social life is like a performance. People present different ‘selves’ depending on social context—like actors on stage.
86
What is the front stage in Goffman’s model?
The social setting where individuals present a controlled and polished version of themselves (e.g. a customer service rep acting cheerful at work).
87
What is the back stage in Goffman’s model?
The private space where people can be their true selves, relax, and drop their performance (e.g. venting about work at home).
88
How is Goffman’s theory relevant in the digital age?
Social media is a modern front stage where users curate idealised images of their lives, while struggles remain backstage/private.
89
What is labelling theory?
The idea that individuals internalise the labels others assign to them, which can influence their self-identity and behaviour.
90
What did W.I. Thomas say about definitions of situations?
“If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” — meaning that social labels can become self-fulfilling prophecies.
91
What is identification and labelling in this context?
The process of assigning categories to individuals (e.g. “disruptive” student), which can shape how they are treated and how they see themselves.
92
What is a master status?
A dominant label that overrides all other aspects of identity (e.g. “ex-convict” or “gifted student”), shaping interactions and expectations.
93
What are strengths of Symbolic Interactionism?
• Explains how meaning is constructed through interaction
• Emphasises individual agency
• Provides insight into identity formation (e.g. looking glass self, labelling)
• Applies well to modern phenomena like social media performance
94
What are criticisms of Symbolic Interactionism?
• Neglects power and structure (e.g. inequality, capitalism)
• Too focused on micro-level processes
• Findings are hard to generalise
• Often offers description over explanation
95
What is phenomenology in sociology?
A theory developed by Edmund Husserl (expanded by Alfred Schutz) that explores how individuals impose meaning and order onto their experiences using mental categories and shared knowledge.
96
What did Edmund Husserl argue about perception and meaning?
People organise sensory information using mental categories, making the world comprehensible.
## Footnote
For example, recognising a classroom by its typical features (e.g. desks, teacher).
97
What is the ‘lifeworld’ according to Alfred Schutz?
The shared stock of common-sense knowledge, norms, and assumptions used in daily life to interpret actions and maintain predictable interactions.
98
Give a modern example of the lifeworld.
Emojis like thumbs-up (👍) or smiley faces (😊) in digital communication are widely understood symbols that aid in efficient, shared interaction.
99
What are typifications in Schutz’s theory?
Mental categories or shortcuts used to classify people and situations, helping individuals make quick assumptions.
## Footnote
For example, someone in a white coat = doctor.
100
How do typifications help in unfamiliar settings?
They guide expectations based on prior experiences—e.g. assuming restaurant procedures even if you’ve never been to that specific one.
101
What is recipe knowledge?
Practical, taken-for-granted knowledge used to perform daily tasks automatically (e.g. boarding a bus, paying fare, finding a seat).
102
What is the ‘natural attitude’ in phenomenology?
The unspoken belief that the world is orderly and reliable. People act without constantly questioning the legitimacy of their routines.
103
What is ethnomethodology?
A sociological approach by Harold Garfinkel that studies how individuals construct and maintain social order through everyday practices and shared assumptions.
104
What are breaching experiments?
Deliberate disruptions of social norms used to reveal hidden rules of interaction and show how people work to restore normalcy.
105
Give two examples of Garfinkel’s breaching experiments.
1. Family as strangers – Students treated family like hotel staff, causing confusion.
2. Haggling in supermarkets – Participants tried negotiating fixed prices, shocking others and revealing the unspoken norm of fixed pricing.
106
What is reflexivity in ethnomethodology?
The process of interpreting behaviour using shared meanings to maintain order—e.g. explaining a colleague’s strange behaviour as stress, not a breakdown of social rules.
107
Why is reflexivity important in daily life?
It allows people to sustain social reality by applying common-sense reasoning, especially when norms are breached or ambiguous behaviour occurs.
108
What is indexicality in ethnomethodology?
The idea that meaning is context-dependent. The same phrase or action can mean different things depending on the situation.
109
Give two examples of indexicality.
1. “Can you pass the salt?” = normal at dinner, strange in a business meeting.
2. Laughing = fun at a comedy show, inappropriate at a funeral.
110
How do reflexivity and indexicality explain social order?
Social order is not fixed; it’s continuously created by individuals interpreting meanings in context and adjusting behaviour accordingly.
111
What does ethnomethodology say about rules and norms in public spaces?
People unconsciously follow shared norms (e.g. queuing, greetings) without formal enforcement—order is maintained through mutual understanding.
112
What is a key strength of phenomenology and ethnomethodology?
They offer deep insight into how individuals create and sustain social reality through interaction and shared meaning.
113
What is one major criticism regarding depth?
These theories often describe how meanings are maintained but not why certain meanings arise or become dominant.
114
How do Marxists criticise these approaches?
They neglect power structures—Marxists argue meanings are shaped by ruling class ideology (e.g. media and education reinforce inequality).
115
What is a criticism of breaching experiments?
Critics like Margaret Carey argue they are artificial and trivial, revealing little beyond common knowledge about social norms.
116
What is a limitation in terms of scale?
These approaches focus too narrowly on micro-level interactions and fail to address broader structural factors like race, class, and patriarchy.
117
When did modernity emerge and what triggered it?
Modernity began in the late 18th century during the Enlightenment, marked by a shift from religious explanations to scientific and rational thinking.
118
What are the four key features of modernity?
1. Nation-States – Centralised governance (e.g. unified Italy or France).
2. Capitalism – Private ownership and wage labour (e.g. rise of tech giants today).
3. Rationality & Science – Knowledge based on evidence (e.g. medical advances like vaccines).
4. Individualism – Focus on personal freedom and identity (e.g. rise of the nuclear family).
119
What evidence supports modernity as a historical era?
• Rise of nation-states (e.g. Germany, USA)
• Industrial Revolution
• Colonial expansion and spread of multiculturalism
120
What is late modernity?
A developmental stage of modernity where structural processes continue but with intensified individualisation, reflection, and globalisation.
121
What is disembedding in late modernity? (Giddens)
Social life becomes dislocated from face-to-face interaction due to technology (e.g. Zoom, Google Classroom, remote work).
122
What is reflexivity in late modernity? (Giddens)
Individuals constantly reflect on actions and values (e.g. changes in behaviour due to climate awareness or adopting veganism).
123
What is Beck’s concept of risk society?
Society now faces manufactured risks (e.g. nuclear war, climate change) caused by human technological progress, not nature.
124
What is individualisation according to Beck?
Traditions no longer dictate behaviour; people make choices based on personal beliefs (e.g. rejecting traditional careers or holidays).
125
What evidence supports late modernity?
• Growth of identity choice (e.g. LGBTQ+ visibility)
• Rise of tech and AI
• Proliferation of global protest movements (e.g. BLM, Fridays for Future)
126
What are criticisms of late modernity?
• Rustin (Marxist): Risk is driven by capitalism, not tech
• Social movements lack unity (e.g. fragmented climate groups)
• May reflect modernity’s failure, not a new phase
127
What is postmodernity?
A societal era where traditional structures collapse, leading to uncertainty, consumer-driven identities, and fragmented worldviews.
128
What is fragmentation in postmodernity?
Society lacks shared values—individuals curate personal lifestyles (e.g. customised media on Netflix/Spotify).
129
How do consumer identities define people in postmodernity?
Individuals align with brands and lifestyles (e.g. Apple vs. Android users, SHEIN fashion).
130
What is hyperreality? (Baudrillard)
A condition where reality is blurred with media simulation (e.g. Instagram lives appear more real than actual life).
131
What are simulacra? (Baudrillard)
Representations that no longer reflect reality but create their own (e.g. scripted reality shows like Keeping Up with the Kardashians).
132
What are examples of postmodern features in society?
• “Conscious uncoupling” in relationships
• Curated social media personas
• Brand-based identity formation
133
What are criticisms of postmodernity?
• Philo & Miller: Ignores structural inequality (e.g. racism, poverty)
• Best & Kellner: Descriptive, not explanatory
• Overlooks capitalism and patriarchy as ongoing forces
134
What did Durkheim believe was the main function of education?
Social cohesion. Education acts as a secondary agent of socialisation, reinforcing norms and values taught by the family to maintain a cohesive society.
135
How does education function as a secondary agent of socialisation according to Durkheim?
It builds on primary socialisation from the family, teaching societal norms and values, and correcting negative subcultural or familial influences.
136
What is Parsons’ ‘bridge effect’ in education?
Education bridges the gap between the family and wider society by teaching children universalistic values (rules that apply to everyone), preparing them for adult roles.
137
What are particularistic and universalistic values according to Parsons?
• Particularistic values: Norms specific to the home (e.g. swearing allowed).
• Universalistic values: Societal norms that apply universally (e.g. swearing is unacceptable in public).
138
How does Parsons see school helping young people integrate into society?
By providing a space to learn universalistic values and norms through social mistakes in a low-stakes environment.
139
What is a key evaluation of Durkheim and Parsons’ views on education?
It assumes children are passive recipients of socialisation, ignoring pupil resistance, questioning, and the formation of anti-school subcultures.
140
What criticism is made about value consensus in Functionalist theory?
Critics argue society is not based on shared values, given the diversity in family structures, lifestyles, and cultural backgrounds.
141
What is Schultz’s theory of Human Capital?
Education is an investment in individuals to create a skilled and flexible workforce, which benefits the economy and reduces social conflict.
142
What is the Functionalist view of role allocation (Davis and Moore)?
Education sorts individuals into the right roles in society based on merit and talent, ensuring the most capable fill the most important jobs.
143
What is meritocracy, according to Davis and Moore?
A system where individuals achieve status and rewards based on ability and effort rather than class, gender, or ethnicity.
144
What are key criticisms of the Human Capital and Role Allocation functions of education?
• Marxists: Meritocracy is a myth; education benefits the middle class who are advantaged by private schooling and cultural capital.
## Footnote
Example: Boris Johnson benefited more from elite connections at Eton than academic excellence.
145
How do the New Right views differ from Functionalists?
The New Right agree with Functionalist aims (e.g. socialisation, role allocation), but believe the state education system fails to deliver them effectively.
146
What do Chubb and Moe argue about education?
Education should operate on market principles—introducing competition between schools and allowing parents choice through education vouchers.
147
What is parentocracy according to Chubb and Moe?
The idea that parents should have power to choose the best schools for their children, increasing competition and raising standards.
148
How do New Right theorists see students and parents?
As consumers. Schools should compete for students, improving quality and outcomes to attract ‘customers’.
149
What is the intended benefit of competition in schools (New Right)?
Higher standards, better role allocation, stronger work ethic, and more efficient schools—preparing students for economic success.
150
What are criticisms of the New Right view on education?
• Creates fear of failure and high student pressure (e.g. Varsity Blues documentary).
• Oversimplifies the education system and ignores factors like location and ethos.
• Contradictory: They oppose government intervention but promote government-driven policies like vouchers and school rankings.
151
What is the core belief of Marxist theory regarding the role of education?
Marxists believe the education system reproduces and legitimizes social inequality to maintain capitalism and the dominance of the ruling class (bourgeoisie).
152
What does Althusser argue about the structure of the education system?
Althusser argues that education is structured to engineer middle-class success and working-class failure, which reproduces social inequality and serves capitalism.
153
What is the hidden curriculum, according to Althusser?
The hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken norms, values, and expectations taught in schools that reflect and reinforce middle-class values and support capitalist ideology.
154
How does the hidden curriculum support social inequality?
It rewards middle-class behaviours (e.g. punctuality, obedience) while punishing or ignoring working-class norms, ensuring middle-class success and working-class failure.
155
How do public and private schools contribute to inequality, according to Althusser?
Private schools offer better resources, networking, and preparation for elite roles, maintaining the power of the wealthy and limiting working-class upward mobility.
156
How does Althusser say education legitimizes inequality?
By presenting class-based success and failure as natural and deserved, the system creates the illusion of fairness, promoting false class consciousness.
157
What is false class consciousness?
When working-class individuals believe the system is fair and that success is based solely on merit, even though systemic barriers limit their opportunities.
158
How does the education system promote capitalist values?
Through the hidden curriculum, it promotes materialism, competition, and obedience—encouraging students to aspire to wealth and status under capitalism.
159
What do Bowles and Gintis argue about the education system?
They argue education mirrors the workplace through the correspondence principle, preparing students for exploitation under capitalism.
160
What is the correspondence principle?
The idea that school and work have similar structures—hierarchies, rules, discipline, and reward systems—which train students to accept capitalist work conditions.
161
What is the ‘myth of meritocracy’ according to Marxists?
It is the false belief that hard work alone leads to success, ignoring the role of social class, cultural capital, and systemic privilege in educational outcomes.
162
How does the myth of meritocracy benefit capitalism?
It convinces the working class to accept their position and fuels a belief that failure is personal, not systemic—maintaining a steady supply of obedient workers.
163
What is the New Right criticism of the Marxist view?
Chubb and Moe argue education fails everyone, not just the working class, and does not prepare students to compete globally. They advocate for marketisation.
164
What is the Neo-Marxist criticism of Althusser and Bowles & Gintis?
Neo-Marxist Paul Willis (Learning to Labour) shows working-class students have agency and resist the hidden curriculum, forming anti-school subcultures.
165
What does Willis’ study reveal about working-class agency?
In his study of 12 working-class boys, Willis found they rejected school values and chose manual labour out of family loyalty and cultural tradition.
166
How does Giroux critique the Marxist view?
Giroux argues that the working class does not passively accept inequality—resistance and subcultures prove the failure of capitalist indoctrination in schools.
167
What is the social democratic criticism of Marxist education theory?
Halsey, Floud and Martin argue that reforms like comprehensive education and digital access for disadvantaged students aim to reduce class inequality.
168
How does cultural and economic capital affect educational success?
Middle-class students have access to resources (books, internet, tutors) and are socialised into school values, giving them an unfair advantage over the working class.
169
How do hidden costs of education reinforce inequality?
Even though education is free, costs for uniforms, stationery, tech, and trips disadvantage working-class families, widening the achievement gap.
170
How does the education system support capitalist ideology according to Marxists?
By training compliant workers, promoting meritocracy, and legitimizing inequality, education supports the needs of the capitalist economy.
171
What is the core belief of Marxist theory regarding the role of education?
Marxists believe the education system reproduces and legitimizes social inequality to maintain capitalism and the dominance of the ruling class (bourgeoisie).
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What does Althusser argue about the structure of the education system?
Althusser argues that education is structured to engineer middle-class success and working-class failure, which reproduces social inequality and serves capitalism.
173
What is the hidden curriculum, according to Althusser?
The hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken norms, values, and expectations taught in schools that reflect and reinforce middle-class values and support capitalist ideology.
174
How does the hidden curriculum support social inequality?
It rewards middle-class behaviours (e.g. punctuality, obedience) while punishing or ignoring working-class norms, ensuring middle-class success and working-class failure.
175
How do public and private schools contribute to inequality, according to Althusser?
Private schools offer better resources, networking, and preparation for elite roles, maintaining the power of the wealthy and limiting working-class upward mobility.
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How does Althusser say education legitimizes inequality?
By presenting class-based success and failure as natural and deserved, the system creates the illusion of fairness, promoting false class consciousness.
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What is false class consciousness?
When working-class individuals believe the system is fair and that success is based solely on merit, even though systemic barriers limit their opportunities.
178
How does the education system promote capitalist values?
Through the hidden curriculum, it promotes materialism, competition, and obedience—encouraging students to aspire to wealth and status under capitalism.
179
What do Bowles and Gintis argue about the education system?
They argue education mirrors the workplace through the correspondence principle, preparing students for exploitation under capitalism.
180
What is the correspondence principle?
The idea that school and work have similar structures—hierarchies, rules, discipline, and reward systems—which train students to accept capitalist work conditions.
181
What is the ‘myth of meritocracy’ according to Marxists?
It is the false belief that hard work alone leads to success, ignoring the role of social class, cultural capital, and systemic privilege in educational outcomes.
182
How does the myth of meritocracy benefit capitalism?
It convinces the working class to accept their position and fuels a belief that failure is personal, not systemic—maintaining a steady supply of obedient workers.
183
What is the New Right criticism of the Marxist view?
Chubb and Moe argue education fails everyone, not just the working class, and does not prepare students to compete globally. They advocate for marketisation.
184
What is the Neo-Marxist criticism of Althusser and Bowles & Gintis?
Neo-Marxist Paul Willis (Learning to Labour) shows working-class students have agency and resist the hidden curriculum, forming anti-school subcultures.
185
What does Willis’ study reveal about working-class agency?
In his study of 12 working-class boys, Willis found they rejected school values and chose manual labour out of family loyalty and cultural tradition.
186
How does Giroux critique the Marxist view?
Giroux argues that the working class does not passively accept inequality—resistance and subcultures prove the failure of capitalist indoctrination in schools.
187
What is the social democratic criticism of Marxist education theory?
Halsey, Floud and Martin argue that reforms like comprehensive education and digital access for disadvantaged students aim to reduce class inequality.
188
How does cultural and economic capital affect educational success?
Middle-class students have access to resources (books, internet, tutors) and are socialised into school values, giving them an unfair advantage over the working class.
189
How do hidden costs of education reinforce inequality?
Even though education is free, costs for uniforms, stationery, tech, and trips disadvantage working-class families, widening the achievement gap.
190
How does the education system support capitalist ideology according to Marxists?
By training compliant workers, promoting meritocracy, and legitimizing inequality, education supports the needs of the capitalist economy.
