Theories of religion

Question 1

What is the Substantive definition of religion?

Answer 1

• these focus on the content or substance of religious belief such as belief in God or the supernatural
• Weber 1905) religion is a belief in the superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically
• exclusive as they draw clear line between religious & non religious beliefs

Question 2

AO3 substantive definition

Answer 2

• defining religion in this way leaves no room for beliefs & practices that perform similar functions to religion but do not involve belief in a God (exclusivist)
• Western bias > excluded non theistic belief systems like Buddhism

Question 3

What is the functional definition of religion?

Answer 3

• defined in terms of the social or psychological functions religion performs for individuals
• Durkheim defines religion in terms of its contribution it makes to social integration

Question 4

AO3 functional definition

Answer 4

• functional definitions are inclusive, allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs & practices that perform functions such as integration
• No bias against non-western religions e.g. Buddhism
• too inclusive as this could also include ideologies such as football fandom or nationalism

Question 5

What is the constructionist definition?

Answer 5

• social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how members of society themselves define religion
• not possible to produce a single universal definition of religion to cover all cases
• do not assume that religion always is a belief in God or the supernatural

Question 6

What are social constructionists interested in and example?

Answer 6

• how definitions of religion are constructed challenged and fought over
• Aldridge shows how for its followers Scientology is a religion, whereas several governments have denied legal status as religion & sought to ban it
• shows that the definition of religion can be contested & influenced by who has the power to define it

Question 7

A03 constructionist definition

Answer 7

• impossible to generalise about the nature of religion, since their are differing views on what counts
• lacks generalisability as there is no single explanation

Question 8

What does Durkheim argue is they key feature of all religions?

Answer 8

• fundamental difference between the sacred & profane
• sacred= things set apart & forbidden, inspire feelings of awe, fear & wonder (cross)
• profane= things that have no special meaning or significance- ordinary & mundane
• Argues that scared things create powerful feelings in believers because they are symbols representing a greater power and this thing is society
• symbols thus unit members into a single moral community
• E.G. Durkheim observed that each clan worshipped a totem, which symbolised both the deity and society itself > worshipping the totem equated to worshipping society which reinforces the collective conscience
• without these scared symbols society would disintegrate

Question 9

AO3 Durkheim on the functions of religion

Answer 9

• overemphasises the positive aspects of religion neglecting its potential to cause conflict and division between different communities
• based on study of small scale societies > may not be applicable to other societies

Question 10

What dos Malinowski argue religion performs?

Answer 10

• psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity
• Malinowski studies the Trobriand Islanders and found that religious rituals were used to manage anxiety during uncertain situations such as open sea fishing
• Religion also provided explanations and comfort during life events like birth, deaths, marriage helping individuals to cope with emotional stress e.g. notion of life after death comforts the bereaved by denying the fact of death

Question 11

What are the two functions of religion that Parson identifies of religion?

Answer 11

• Parsing argues that:
• religion creates and legitimates society’s central values by sacralising them e.g. influence of Protestantism on American values such as individualism, meritocracy’s and self discipline which became embedded in the core values of the nation > establishes value consensus and social solidiraity
• religion also provides a source of meaning > provides answers to ultimate questions such as why the good suffer > helping individuals to cope with unforeseen circumstances and events maintaining stability

Question 12

What did Bellah argue about Civil religion?

Answer 12

• Bellah introduced the concept of civil religion, where secular symbols and rituals (national flags, anthems) perform similar functions to traditional religions in uniting society
• e.g. in the US, national ceremonies and symbols created a shared sense of identity and purpose > it sacralises the American way of life and binds together Americans from many different backgrounds

Question 13

What do Marxists argue about religion as an ideology?

Answer 13

• religion is a feature of a class divided society
• Marists argue that religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to legitimate the suffering of the poor as something inevitable and god given > it misleads the poor to believe their suffering is virtuous and that they will be rewarded in the afterlife
• such ideas create a false class consciousness > a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation
• Lenin describes religion as a spiritual gin that is used to manipulate the the masses by creating a mystifying fog of false consciousness e.g. the Hindu caste system, the doctrine of karma & reincarnation justify social position by claiming they are earned through past life behaviour > stops the poor from reciting their position

Question 14

What do Marxists argue about religion and alienation?

Answer 14

• Marx saw religion as a product of alienation, when workers are detached from the products of their labour
• religion becomes a source of comfort for the exploited > a form of opium to dull the pain of exploitation
• its promises of the afterlife create an illusory happiness that distracts attention from the true source of the suffering > capitalism

Question 15

Evaluation of the Marxist view of religion

Answer 15

• ignores the positive functions of religion (helping to cope with grief or illness)
• neo Marxists argue that religion can sometimes challenge inequality e.g. liberation theology
• some reject alienation as a romantic and unscientific idea

Question 16

What do feminists argue about religion?

Answer 16

• feminists argue that religion is a patriarchal institution that legitimates and reproduces gender inequality and women’s subordination
• e.g. religious organisations are mainly male dominated e.g. orthodox, Judaism, and Catholicism forbid women from priesthood
• places of worship often segregate sexes and marginalize women e.g. Islam may prevent mensurating women from touching the Qur’an
• sacred text are mainly written and interpreted by men and often contain anti-female stories (Eve causing humanity’s fall)

Question 17

Evaluation of feminist view of religion

Answer 17

• ignores increasing gender equality in some religious institutions (e.g. female bishops in the church of England)
• women have not always been subordinate in religion > Armstrong argues that early religions often placed women at the centre e.g. earth mother goddesses
• Woodhead argues that religion is not always patriarchal but can be used a source of empowerment e.g. Hijab can be seen as liberating rather than oppressive
• Pentecostal use religion to gain respect and status for their roles within the home and the family > they use religion to influence men’s behaviour by insisting they refrain from macho behaviour