theorists Flashcards
(14 cards)
Piaget
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposes that children progress through four distinct stages:
Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years): Children learn through their senses and actions, developing object permanence.
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children begin to use language and think symbolically but lack logical reasoning.
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children develop logical thinking about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation.
Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up): Adolescents develop abstract reasoning and can think about hypothetical situations.
Piaget’s theory emphasizes that children actively construct their understanding of the world through exploration and interaction with their environment.
Chomsky
Chomsky’s theory, primarily known as Universal Grammar, posits that humans are born with an innate capacity for language. This theory suggests that all human languages share a common underlying structure, allowing children to effortlessly acquire language rules and grammatical structures. Chomsky proposed that every child is equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD), enabling them to learn any language they are exposed to. Despite variations in languages, the fundamental principles of grammar remain consistent across cultures, indicating a universal set of rules for language.
skinner
Overview of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process developed by B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist. It posits that behaviors are modified based on the consequences that follow them. Skinner’s work was built upon Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to recur. Key Concepts:
Reinforcement: This is any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior. It can be positive (adding a pleasant stimulus) or negative (removing an unpleasant stimulus).
Punishment: This involves introducing a negative consequence or removing a positive one to decrease a behavior’s occurrence.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Skinner identified various schedules (fixed, variable, interval, ratio) that affect how quickly behaviors are learned and how resistant they are to extinction.
2 Sources
Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner is well-known for his experiments using the Skinner Box, where he studied the behavior of animals, particularly rats and pigeons. In these experiments, animals learned to perform specific actions (like pressing a lever) to receive food as a reward. This demonstrated how behavior could be shaped through reinforcement.
Applications of Skinner’s Theory
Skinner’s principles of operant conditioning have been applied in various fields, including education, psychology, and behavior modification. Techniques such as token economies in classrooms and behavior therapy in clinical settings utilize reinforcement strategies to encourage desired behaviors.
Critiques and Limitations
While Skinner’s theory has been influential, it has faced criticism for potentially overlooking cognitive processes and ethical considerations in behavior modification. Critics argue that it may not fully account for the complexities of human behavior, which can involve internal thoughts and motivations.
In summary, B.F. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning provides a framework for understanding how behavior is learned and modified through reinforcement and punishment, with significant implications for education and psychology.
Ainsworth
The Strange Situation
The “Strange Situation” is a structured observational study designed to assess the quality of attachment between infants (aged 12 to 18 months) and their caregivers. The procedure involves a series of eight episodes, including separations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a stranger. This method allows researchers to observe how children respond to stress and comfort.
Attachment Styles Identified by Ainsworth
Ainsworth identified three primary attachment styles based on her observations during the “Strange Situation”:
Secure Attachment (Type B): Children with secure attachment feel safe and comfortable exploring their environment. They show distress when separated from their caregiver but are easily comforted upon reunion. These children typically have caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their needs.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment (Type A): Children with this attachment style tend to avoid or ignore their caregiver, showing little emotion when separated or reunited. They may have caregivers who are emotionally unavailable or unresponsive to their needs.
Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment (Type C): These children exhibit clinginess and anxiety, showing distress when separated but ambivalence upon reunion. They may seek comfort but also resist it, indicating inconsistent caregiver responses.
Later research by Main and Solomon introduced a fourth style, Disorganized Attachment, characterized by a lack of clear attachment behavior, often resulting from trauma or inconsistent caregiving.
Bowlby
Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive. Bowlby argued that a child forms many attachments, but one of these is qualitatively different.
Vygotsky
Vygotsky’s theory comprises concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky posited that cognitive development is influenced by cultural and social factors.
Bruner
Bruner’s theory of cognitive development emphasizes the following key points:
Constructivist approach: Children actively construct knowledge through experience.
Role of culture and language: These play a crucial role in cognitive development.
Three-tiered system of internal representations: Enactive, iconic, and symbolic.
Stages of intellectual ability: Development occurs through step-by-step changes in how the mind is used.
Bandura
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn through observation, imitation, and modeling. Key concepts include:
Learning through Observation: Individuals can learn new behaviors by watching others, rather than through direct experience.
Imitation and Modeling: The theory emphasizes the role of models in learning, where individuals replicate behaviors they observe.
Cognitive Factors: Bandura highlights the importance of cognitive processes, such as attention, motivation, and self-efficacy, in the learning process.
Behavioral and Environmental Influences: The interaction between personal factors, behavior, and environmental influences shapes learning outcomes.
This theory serves as a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories, integrating both perspectives into understanding human behavior.
chaffer & Emerson
Rudolf Schaffer and Peggy Emerson (1964) sought to formulate clear stages of attachment in infants. They designed a study to examine how infants become attached to their caregivers, from asocial attachments to multiple attachments.
Maslow
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory that categorizes human needs into five levels, often depicted as a pyramid:
Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs such as food, water, and shelter.
Safety Needs: Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
Love and Belongingness Needs: Social relationships, love, and a sense of belonging.
Esteem Needs: Self-esteem, respect, and recognition from others.
Self-Actualization Needs: The desire to achieve personal potential and self-fulfillment.
According to this theory, individuals must satisfy lower-level needs before they can address higher-level needs, ultimately striving for self-actualization.
Gessell
Arnold Gesell’s theory, known as the Maturational Theory, emphasizes that biological growth drives child development. He proposed that children grow and learn in predictable, natural patterns, which are influenced by their genetic makeup. Gesell’s work laid the foundation for understanding physical and mental development in children, creating developmental schedules that continue to influence assessments of children’s growth today. His observations showed that all children go through similar and predictable sequences of development, although the rate may vary for each child.
Bronfenbrenner
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory posits that an individual’s development is influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems. These systems range from immediate surroundings, such as family (microsystem), to broader societal structures, including culture (macrosystem). The theory emphasizes that both the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to shape their growth and development. Bronfenbrenner organized these environmental factors into different layers, each interacting with one another and the individual, highlighting the importance of social influences in the developmental process.
Athey
Athey built on the work of Piaget on how children come to construct understanding through experience. Athey defines a schema as “a pattern of repeatable behaviour into which experiences are assimilated and that are gradually coordinated. Co-ordinations lead to higher-level and more powerful schemas.”
Atkinson & Shiffrin
The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory, also known as the multi-store model of memory, is a structural model of memory. It proposes that memory consists of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). The theory specifies a sequence of three stages information goes through to become encoded into long-term memory: sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory. Learning about this memory model will help you understand how your brain works to create memories and how you can ensure that the things you need to remember to end up in your long-term memory.
