Theorists and Theories

Question 1

Piaget

Answer 1

assimilation
accommodation
equilibrium
disequlibrium

Question 2

assimilation

Answer 2

(Piaget) children understand new information in light of existing concepts

Question 3

accomodation

Answer 3

(Piaget) children must revise their concepts in light of new information

Question 4

equilibrium

Answer 4

(Piaget) Everything in the child’s world makes sense

Question 5

disequlibrium

Answer 5

(Piaget) child encounters a discrepant bit of information that creates confusion and arouses curiosity

Question 6

Vygotsky

Answer 6

emphasized language and social interactions in his theory of cognitive development. His is not a stage theory; rather, argues that cognitive development advances incrementally. He was the first
social constructivist (one who believes that students create their own knowledge under social
guidance, which may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality). He argued that
human thought begins in young children as overt speech that they use to plan, cope, recall, and
rehearse. Most utterances of children, including those that guide their behavior, are borrowed
from their social environment (e.g., parents, teachers, friends, and older siblings). As they mature,
children’s overt speech becomes covert (private) thoughts, but still remain vital in directing their
behavior.

Question 7

Modeling speech

Answer 7

(Vygotsky) teachers should not only demonstrate steps of problem solving or components of a skill, they should also provide students with accompanying speech that describes what they are doing and why they are doing it, which will help guide students’ behavior when they engage in independent practice

Question 8

Scaffolding

Answer 8

(Vygotsky) different forms of social support teachers provide for students engaged in problem solving or other tasks, which includes prompts (reminders), encouragement, modeling, feedback, short of solving the problem for the child

Question 9

Zone of proximal development

Answer 9

(Vygotsky) the edge of a child’s knowledge or problem solving competency; the point at which a child can only succeed with scaffolding provided by another more skilled individual; the optimal point at which learning can occur and is unique to each child for each task

Question 10

Information processing theory of cognitive development

Answer 10

postulates that cognitive dev occurs incrementally in the form of gradual increases in knowledge and skill. Emphasizes the steps students use in solving a problem (the mental activities that underlie problem solving)

Question 11

Metacognition

Answer 11

(Information processing theory of cognitive development)

children’s knowledge of and control over their own thought processes

Question 12

Erikson

Answer 12

As children advance physically and cognitively, society increasingly makes social demands on them.

8 stages: industry v inferiority (6-12) set/achieve long-term goals;

As a major socialization institution of society, schools affect children’s social dev over across many of these stages.

Each stage characterized by a conflict, successful resolution of which contributes to autonomy and happiness in adulthood. Unsuccessful resolution can have persistant, negative consequences on future dev

Question 13

Identity vs confusion

Answer 13

(Erikson) n (adolescence): Society’s main expectation for adolescents is that they
define themselves with regard to what societal adult role (career) they will pursue. Ideally, the
choice should involve an extended search followed by a commitment. Those who are identity
achieved emerge from adolescence having explored and found the adult role that best matches their
interests and abilities. Identity diffused individuals enter adulthood unsure of what role they want
to pursue and have not actively explored possibilities. This is considered a negative outcome.
Adolescence in moratorium are unsure of what role they want to fulfill in adulthood but are
actively searching, an outcome that is quite common but positive. Identify foreclosure applies to
those who select a role to satisfy the expectations of others (e.g., being forced into the family
business) or society rather than through their own exploration. Frustration and resentment often
occur at some point in the foreclosed individual. Educational Implications: Middle and high
school teachers should encourage students to recognize their interests and aptitudes and explore
career options to match them.

Question 14

Kohlberg

Answer 14

Moral development

Three levels
Preconventional: (egocentric) Punishment obedience, instrumental relativist

Conventional level: (concrete operational thinking) goodboy/nice girl (perspectives of others); law & order (authority)

Postconventional level: (formal operations, abstract principles, hypothetical thinking) social contract (relative to time/place and by consensus); universal ethical principle (transcendent)

Question 15

psychometric view of intelligence

Answer 15

(Binet) IQ test. Describing how well a child’s test compares with peers.

Question 16

multiple intelligence

Answer 16

(Howard Gardner)
8 varieties of intelligence: verbal, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalistic

Question 17

Constuctivism

Answer 17

Based on Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development and the writings of Dewey
(1910), it concerns how students make sense of new experiences with their current knowledge.
Constructivism acknowledges the active role students must play in their learning if it is to occur
deeply, to endure, to be enjoyable, and to transfer to contexts beyond the classroom.

Question 18

6 principles of constructivism

Answer 18

1. Students must perceive
   that the material to be learned is important.
2. They must act on the information at a deep level.
3. It is crucial that they relate new material to information already contained in their long-term
   memories.
4. Students will continually check and update their understandings based on new
   experiences.
5. New learning does not automatically transfer to new contexts to which it might
   apply.

6. Finally, students become autonomous learners if they become aware of the process of
learning itself (metacognition), including strategies for consolidating new material and for
checking their understanding

Question 19

7 Recommendations for Learner-Centered Instruction

Answer 19

1. Frequent
   teacher-student interaction should occur.
2. Cooperative learning activities should be interspersed among other engaging instructional formats.
3. Students should be actively involved with
   learning.
4. Teachers should provide prompt, constructive and encouraging feedback on students’
   performance.
5. Teachers should keep students focussed on learning, not on the fear of
   embarrassment, which might result in highly competitive or non-tolerant classroom environments.
6. Teachers should communicate high expectations and provide the scaffolding necessary to
   enable the students to achieve these expectations.
7. Finally, teachers should respect diverse
   talents and ways of learning (take into individual differences into account).

Question 20

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning Objectives

Answer 20

1. Knowledge: The information from a lesson has entered memory, but is not necessarily
   understood.
2. Comprehension: The information is not only in memory but is also understood. Evidence of
   this can be the student’s ability to paraphrase it accurately.
3. Application: The ability to use what has been learned and understood in authentic (real-world)
   contexts.
4. Analysis: The ability to identify the component parts of a situation or context.
5. Synthesis: Competence in bringing fragments or elements of a learning situation together to
   form meaningful patterns or unified wholes. Examples would include comparing and contrasting
   theories of learning or summarizing the highpoints of what they just read.
6. Evaluation: Competence in making critical judgments about a work or product or performance.
   Examples include critiquing a short story, a musical piece, or a scientific experiment.

Question 21

reciprocal teaching

Answer 21

small-group teaching method based on principles of question generation; through instruction and modeling, teachers foster metacognitive skills primarily to improve the reading performance of students who have poor comprehension.

Playing teacher

Question 22

cognitive apprenticeship

Answer 22

process by which learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert (adult or more advanced peer)

Question 23

top-down processing

Answer 23

begin with complex problems to solve & then work out or discover basic skills required

Question 24

discovery learning

Answer 24

constructivist approach to teaching in which students are encouraged to discover principles for themselves

Question 25

self-regulated learning

Answer 25

students who have knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them

Question 26

mediated learning

Answer 26

Based on Vygotsky’s assisted learning; approach in which the teacher guides instruction by scaffolding to help students master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning

Question 27

student teams-achievement divisions (STAD)

Answer 27

cooperative learning method for mixed-ability groupings involving team recognition and group responsibility for individual learning.

Points added up for meet or exceeded earlier performance

Question 28

Jigsaw

Answer 28

cooperative learning model in which students are assigned to six-member teams to work on academic material that has been broken down into sections for each member

Question 29

Jigsaw

Answer 29

cooperative learning model in which students are assigned to six-member teams to work on academic material that has been broken down into sections for each member

Question 30

group study methods

Answer 30

cooperative learning method in which students primarily work together to help one another master a relatively well-defined body of information or skills

Question 31

Cooperative learning methods, to be successful, needs to…

Answer 31

recognition/reward for groups that do well

must be individual accountability

Question 32

Beyer’s 10 critical-thinking skills

Answer 32

1. Distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims
2. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, claims, or reasons
3. Determining the factual accuracy of a statement
4. Determining the credibility of a source
5. Identifying ambiguous claims or arguments
6. Identifying unstated assumptions
7. Detecting bias
8. Identifying logical fallacies
9. Recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line of reasoning
10. Determining the strength of an argument or claim.

Question 33

Beyer’s 10 critical-thinking skills

Answer 33

1. Distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims
2. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, claims, or reasons
3. Determining the factual accuracy of a statement
4. Determining the credibility of a source
5. Identifying ambiguous claims or arguments
6. Identifying unstated assumptions
7. Detecting bias
8. Identifying logical fallacies
9. Recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line of reasoning
10. Determining the strength of an argument or claim.

Question 34

Cooperative integrated reading and composition (CIRC)

Answer 34

comprehensive program for teaching reading and writing in upper elementary grades: series of activities (read to each other, make predictions, summarize stories, write responses)

Question 35

Learning Together

Answer 35

cooperative learning model in which students in four- five-member heterogeneous groups work together on assignments

Question 36

group investigation

Answer 36

cooperative learning model in which students work in small groups using cooperative inquiry, group discussion, and cooperative planning and projects, and then make presentations to the whole class on their findings