Theory Flashcards
(104 cards)
1
Q
Being social = ?
A
Being Human
2
Q
What is the social baseline theory by J.P. Coen?
A
- Brain’s responses to threat cues are minimized with social proximity.
- Our baseline is calm while close .
- Being alone is stressful.
3
Q
What are the three parts of Social psychology?
A
The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context.
Scientific study: systematic observation, measurement, description.
Focus on the psychology of the induvidual -> groups and crowds can also be seen as “the individual”
Interaction with context -> can be both offline and online
4
Q
What are the three parts of “The self”?
A
Three question: Who am I? Where do I belong? Where do I fit?
Self-awareness: knowing yourself (intrapersonal)
Our interaction with others (interpersonal)
Agency and self regulation (intrapersonal)
5
Q
Name 3 parts of Self-awareness?
A
-Being aware of who you are
-Effect of mirror in our self-awareness
-Not only knowing yourself, but who are be COMPARED to others
This either improves performance and socially desirebale behavior.
When behavior or outcames are bad, self-awareness is avoided.
6
Q
What is the Self-concept? Ask yourself three questions?
Is self-concept coherent?
A
Everything you believe to be true about who you are, what you are and what is important to you. The self-concept is formed by different and multiple scherma’s.
This is not one coherent idea about yourself, but instead people have multiple specific ideas about themselves that might reinforce or contradict each other.
7
Q
What are Schema’s?
A
Individual beliefs about the self.
8
Q
What is a trait?
A
A trait is a more stable and enduring characteristic or pattern of behavior, such as extraversion.
Extraversion: if you are an outgoing person or not.
9
Q
What is a state?
A
A state is a temporary way of being and changes per situation or context, such as happiness.
10
Q
What are the 5 different ways we form our self-concept?
A
- Introspection: thinking about who we are
- Behavioral perceptions: we listen to our bodies (whether your body feels angry, sad or happy) Motivation: intrinsic vs. extrinsic
- Interaction with the self: self-perception theory observe yourself, also over-justification effect if you are no longer extrinsically motivated for something, we quite doing it
- Intercation with others: how you define yourself in depenedent on who is listening, social comparison theory
- Memory
11
Q
Name three reasons why forming the self-concept is not objective?
A
- Diagnositicy: Preference to acquire information that can provide the clearest, most unambiguous information about the self.
- Self-enhancement: Preference for the favorable information about the self.
- Self-verification: Preference to verify or confirm whatever you already believe about yourself.
12
Q
What is self-deception?
A
Believing what you want to believe about yourself without a lot of evidence for those beliefs.
13
Q
What is self-esteem?
A
Part of self-concept, but evaluative (comparison with others)
14
Q
Is high self-esteem better than low self-esteem?
A
This is still debated. However, it seems to be the case that people with high self-esteem have clear and consistent beliefs about themselves, whereas the beliefs of people with low self-esteem are often confused, contradictory, and fluctuating.
15
Q
What is the sociometer theory?
A
Self-esteem is an internal measure of how much we are accepted by others.
16
Q
What is self-presentation?
A
Our efforts to portray ourselves in a certian way to others.
17
Q
What is impression management?
A
Behaving differently when other are watching.
Do you answer a question differently or do you behave differently when you know other people are watching you?
Our drive to present ourselfs in a nice way to others can be HAREFUL to out health and can even be very dangerous -> smoking, driving without a helmet.
18
Q
What are the two way social categorization can be devided?
A
In-groups: a group of people that we identify with family, friends, colleagues, like minded.
Out-groups: everyone who fall outside the in-groups everyone who is different from us in a perceived way.
Out-groups are seen as homogeneous and are dehumanized we should defend us against the out-group its us or them.
Social categorization is arbitrary and easy to manipulate, as has been shown by the Stanford prison experiment.
19
Q
What are the two aspects of the social facilitation effect?
A
Performing a task in presence of audience
- if you know the task well -> performence inproves
- if you do not know the task well -> performence declines
example: running a marathon with many people cheering you on along the way vs. going a speech in front of an audience without having the possibility to practice.
20
Q
What is self-regulation, name 4 things?
A
- The self’s capacity to alter
- Both internal and autonomous control
- self-awareness
- Ego-depletion
- The self’s capacity to alter and change itself and its states, particularly so as to bring them into line with standards such as norms, goals, ideals or rules.
- Both internal and autonomous control such as heart rate variability, as deliberate control such as choosing whether to eat cake or lose weight over time.
- You can only self-regulate when you are aware of yourself (self-awareness).
- Ego-depletion: our self-regulation (or willpower) is finite, it is gone at a certain point (think about saying no to take care for 3 times and then saying yes the 4th time).
21
Q
What is agency?
A
The need to assert oneself and make decisions based on personal interests and values.
22
Q
What is self-determination theory (SDT)?
A
It is concerned with the motivation behind choices people make without external influence and interference. SDT focuses on the degree to which behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.
23
Q
What are attitudes?
A
Attitudes are the good/bad evaluations that we attach to object in our social world (evaluation).
24
Q
What can attitudes be towards?
A
Attitudes can be evaluations attached to almost anything. Such as people, social groups, physical objects, behaviors, and even abstract concepts.
25
What are the 4 ways to measure attitudes?
1. very subjective (explicit) open interview question
2. subjective (explicit) survey question using likert scale
3. less subjective (implicit) implicit association task
4. psychophysiological (implicit) EEG, skin conductence
26
In what two ways are attitudes structured?
Valence: positive or negative
Arousal: importance of this attitude for us (how much they elicit strong emotional responses).
27
What are the 5 base dimensions of attitude?
1. strength
2. extremity
3. importance
4. certainty
5. accessibility
28
When in life are attitudes formed?
Attitudes are formed early in and throughout life.
29
In what three ways are attitudes learned?
1. Direct exposure
2. Mere exposure
3. Evaluative conditioning
1. Direct exposure: The link between our attitudes formed through direct exposure and our actual behavior is very strong.
However, base of attitude and behavior should be the same to have a strong effect on behavior.
Same for direct exposure to virtual experiences.
2. Mere exposure: an attitude towards stimulus becomes more favorable with increasing frequancy of exposure to the stimulus.
3. Evaluative conditioning: The process by which the valence of an stimulus (positive, negative or neutral) van be transferred to other stimuli when they are repeatedly presented together. (Pavlov clissical conditioning)
Ecalucative conditionaing is not about repsonse, but about valence (positive vs negative).
Example: mapping pleasent music to a certian soft drink brand.
30
How do persuasion models effect attitudes?
Apart from leaning attitudes, we also change, reinforce or diverify them based on new incoming information. Not always an easy and straightforwards process.
Self-persuasion and persusaion through communication by others.
31
Name three ways of self-persuasion?
- Actively thinking about arguments in favor of a certian position
- Advocating for something
- Teaching yourself new perspectives/theories
32
What are the two parts of the hearistic-systematic model?
- What expert says is true.
- In-depth analysis of message content.
Not mutually exclusice routes
33
What is the elaboration likelihood model (ELM)?
Persuasion is a cognitive event, people use mental processes of motivation and reasoning to accept or reject persuasive messages.
The amount of elaboration is determined by the relevance to one's own life, individual factors, such as need for cognition, and situation factors, such as distraction.
34
Which two routes can be used when being persuaded? On which two factors does it depend which was will be used?
Central and peripheral route.
Depends on:
Ability: whether you are mentally able to follow and understand the messenger's arguments
Motivation: whether you are interested, motivated, and willing to follow the messenger's arguments.
Example:
Think hard, central route processing
Be influenced by others peripheral route processing
35
What are the 3 influence factor catagories in persuadion models?
Name all the factors?
Source:
- Expertise
- Credibility
- Likeability
- Trustworthiness
Recipient:
-Emotions
Message:
- Argument quality
- Message length, depth, interestingness
- Subliminal priming
- Narrative
36
What is selective exposure?
Avoiding information likely to change your attitudes and seeking information to likely support your attitudes.
37
Can attitudes be changed?
Attutudes and beliefs are very RESISTANT to change.
38
What is cognitive dissonance?
When we hold two or more conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviours at the same time.
We do not like this feeling of dissonance and try our best to "rationalize" the dissonance by dropping one belief or by convincing ourselves that these beliefs can fit together.
39
What is reactance?
Threat to or loss of freedom motivates people to restore freedom.
-Manifested through behaviour to restore freedom
-Person is often emotional, irrational and single-minded
Keep reactance in mind when trying to change behaviour, once reactance happens you won't be able to change attitude or behaviour. It is hard to get rid of reactance.
40
What are values?
Values are motivational bases of attitudes and behavior.
41
What is a belief?
A person's subjective probability of a relation between the object of belief and some other object, value, concept, or attitude and affects people's understanding of themselves and their environments.
42
What is an intention?
The willingness to perform a behaviour.
43
What is behaviour?
Behaviour is defined as the overt acts of an individual and in generally assumed to partly stem from attitudes.
44
Describe the theory of planned behaviour?
The theory of planned behaviour is a psychological theory that links beliefs to behaviour.
45
What are the three core components of the theory of planned behaviour?
1. Attitude
2. Subjective norms
3. perceived behavioural control
Together they shape an individual's behaviour intentions.
46
What is goal-directed behaviour?
Goal-directed behaviour looks like the fundamental components of the theory of planned behaviour with respect to goals rather than behaviours.
Desire plays an integral role in the model of goal-directed behaviour in a way that it is perceived to be a stronger predictor compared to attitudes and subjective norms.
47
What is the social influence theory?
The theory of social influences hinges on a basic premise: individuals are likely to change their behaviour according to the social environment in which they find themselves.
Social influences may have an effect on many different levels of an individual's life.
48
What are the three parts that decide behaviour according to the social influence theory?
1. Compliance (subject norm): Individual acts to comply with the opinions of other people who are important to him/her.
2. Identification (social identity): Individual identifies with a community.
3. Internalization (group norm): individual accepts the influence due to the congruence of his/her values with those of group members.
49
How to effectively influence attitudes and behaviours, name three?
Right message, right time, in the right way.
Right message = Target of persuasive attempt needs to be receptive to the target attitude or behaviour that the technology is aiming to change
Right time = The message needs to be delivered at a time when the target of persuasive attempts is able to attend the message and go over to action
Right way = The content of the message needs to fit the audience
50
What are the six social influence factors?
1. Authority
2. Consensus or social proof
3. Consistency and commitment
4. Scarcity
5. Liking
6. Reciprocity
Authority: People are inclined to follow recommendations and suggestions originating from authorities however, be aware of reactance.
Consensus or social proof: When individuals observe multiple others manifesting the same belief or behaviour, they are more likely to believe and behave similarly.
Consistency and commitment: Refers to people' strive to maintain consistent beliefs and act accordingly, reducing cognitive dissonance.
Scarcity: Assumed scarcity increases the perceived value of products and opportunities.
Liking: We say "yes" to people we like, when a request is made by someone we like we are more inclined to act accordingly.
Reciprocity: People are inclined to actually people go through a great deal of effort to pay back a favor.
51
Name 4 other influence principles besides the social principles?
1. Priming
2. Nudging
3. Power of contract
4. Hide spending
1. The exposure to one stimulus influences our reaction to the next stimulus. In other words, influencing the decision by introducing a stimulus or intervention prior to the decision.
2. Minimalist intervention by revising a design or text e.g. shaped, colours or lighting.
52
What is personal-construct theory?
People make sense of the world through their own constructs, rather than through concepts that exist independently of them.
53
Explain the quadrant of high UX and high usability?
Products that are important for the participants such as computers, smartphones, specific software.
Products that provide an easy form of leisure: gaming consoles, e-readers, or tv. Products used most often.
All products perform their intended function without problems that interrupt their use. These products "do what they are supposed to do", and most of them work intuitively; functions can easily be found, and products can be used without explanation. The products listed meet the expectations that the user has of them.
54
Explain the quadrant of low UX and low usability?
These products cause frustration for the user; not functioning well. unclear layout, slowness, unwanted funtions.
The tasks associated with these products are tasks users would rather not do.
The products have problems that disturb their use to such an extent that users either have specific reasons for still using them or do not use these products anymore at all.
55
Explain the quadrant of high UX and low usability?
Entertainment products that ask for an investment of time and effort but that lead to satisfying rewarding results.
"Utility products", products meant for reaching a specific goal, such as a software package that is effective but difficult to master.
"Utility products" that are slightly difficult to operate: printer and speakers.
So, products that have a learning curve or that have room for improvement.
56
Explain the quadrant of low UX and high usability?
Household or utility products with problems that range from minor functional issues to severe issues, or that are associated with an annoying task. A lot of these products are not what the user would have liked them to be but are still used due to the lack of a better alternative.
57
What are high usability products?
Products that do not pose too many challenges for their users and allow them to use them immediately.
58
What are low usability products?
Products that take some amount of effort to use.
59
What are high UX products?
Products that are pleasing to use or fulfill an important funtion.
60
What are low UX products?
Products that are frustrating to use because of a defect or other errors.
61
What is mean with a utility product?
The product works; it does what is needed.
62
What is product usability?
The extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context of use.
63
What are the five attributes of usability?
1. Learnability
2. Efficiency
3. Memorability
4. Errors
5. Satisfaction
64
What is likeability?
The user's subjective feeling of suitability, that will lead to satisfaction.
65
What is user experience?
A person's perceptions and responses, that result from the anticipated use of the product, system, or service.
It focuses on the interaction between people and products, and all sorts of experiences that result from it.
66
Describe three types of relationships between usability and UX?
1. UX is something distinct from usability.
2. UX is an elaboration of the satisfaction component of usability.
3. UX is an umbrella term for all user's perceptions and responses.
67
What is the most common view regarding usability and UX?
Usability influences or is part of UX. Good usability usually leads to or comes with a good experience. Users also see a possible indirect relationship where a positive UX can lead to better subjective usability since positive experiences can make you more tolerant towards flaws that a product may have.
68
What is accessibility?
The usability of a product, service, environment, or facility by people with the widest range of capabilities. Also called "design for all", "inclusive design" or "universal design".
69
Why is "inclusive design important?
Recent research suggests that the implementation of accessibility guidelines may provide benefits for nondisabled users, too, but in specific areas the benefits for nondisabled users are limted.
70
How are usability and UX measured name three ways?
1. User-based or expert-based
2. Qualitative or quantitative
3. Objective or subjective
71
What is adoption?
A Longitudinal process leading to a decision for technology use.
72
What is acceptance?
Close to adoption but focuses more on the users' perceptions of adopting technological innovations.
73
Name the five adopter categories?
1. Innovators
2. Early adopters
3. Early majority
4. Late majority
5. Laggards
74
Describe an innovator?
Actively looking for information regarding new ideas and who adopt these innovations ar a very early stage.
75
Describe an Early adopter?
Often play the role of opinion leaders within the community of which they are a member, adopt innovation at a relatively early stage but are less venturesome than innovators.
76
Describe the early majority?
Adopt an innovation before the 'average' person or organization.
77
Describe the late majority?
The groups that is somewhat skeptical and waits until the 'average' person or organization had adopted the innovation before deciding to do so themselves.
78
Describe laggards?
Covservative individuals or organizations with few external contacts and a primarily suspicions attitute towards new ideas, who will not adopt an innovation unstill a very late stage or not a all.
79
What is the technology acceptance model in an organizational setting?
In organizational settings: "Do people working in a company accept the technology?"
80
What are the two key factors in the technology acceptance model?
1. Perceived usefulness (PU): is the technology going to enhance my job, activity or performance?
2. Perceived ease of use (PEOU): can I use this technology without too much effort?
81
What are the five stage of innovation-decision process?
1. Knowlege
2. Persuasion
3. Decision
4. Implementation
5. Confirmation
82
Name the four factors of the unified theory of acceptance and use of technologies?
1. Performance expectancy
2. Effort expectancy
3. Social influence
4. Facilitating conditions: "Is there any help?"
83
What are four personal characteristics in the unified theory of acceptance and use of technologies?
1. Age
2. Experience
3. Gender
4. Voluntariness of Use
84
What are the seven factors of the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology for consumers?
1. Performance expectancy
2. Effort expectancy
3. Social influence
4. Facilitating conditions
5. Hedonic motivation
6. Price value
7. Habit
85
What are the three personal characteristics in the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology for consumers?
1. Age
2. Gender
3. Expeirence
86
What is appropriation?
Technical and cognative mastery of the technology, which integrates practices into the daily use in a significant and creative manner.
87
What are the three stages of appropriation?
1. Initial evaluation, weighing perceived features and value expectations
2. Getting to know the technology through use, constraints and functionalities are explored.
3. Stable use scenario of the technology, users know what they can use it for though this might differ from creator's intent
88
Describe domestication?
Deals with the cultural, social and technological networks of the everyday life of households.
89
What is mutual shaping?
Technology and everyday life affect each other. Technical properties might be less important than social negotiations and norms.
90
What is biologically primary knowledge?
1. Knowledge we have evolved to acquire
2. Modular knowledge acquired independently
3. Knowledge that is acquired easily, automatically, unconsciously
4. Knowledge that is acquired without explicit instruction
91
What is biologically secondary knowledge?
1. Cultural knowledge we have not evolved to acquire
2. Types of knowledge that are related and acquired in a similar way
3. Knowledge acquired deliberately with conscious effort
4. Knowledge best acquired with explicit instruction
92
Name three assumptions about how the mind works according to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning?
1. Dual Channel: Humans possess separate information processing channels for verbal and visual material.
2. Limited capacity: There is only a limited amount of processing capacity available in the verbal and visual channels.
3. Active processing: Leaning requires substantial cognitive processing in the verbal and visual channels.
93
Describe the three types of load according to the cognitive load theory?
1. Extraneous cognitive load + incidental processing: can result in cognitive overload, should be minimized, information is not related to leaning
2. Intrinsic cognitive load + representational holding: should be minimized, is difficult because you need to process this important information
3. Germane cognitive load + essential processing: should be maximized, means you're leaning something
94
What are the five ways information overload can happen?
1. One channel overloaded with essential processing demands
Offload to other channels, depends on the informative goal and characteristics of the target group.
2. Both channels are overloaded with essential processing demands
Complex material split up in chunks, segmentation, pertaining.
3. One or both channels are overloaded by the combination of essential and incidental processing demands because extraneous material is included in the documentation
Remove distracting information, signalling to provide cues to process material reduce extraneous material
4. One or both channels are overloaded by a combination of essential and incidental processing demands because the martial is presented in a confusing way
Aligning words and pictures results in spatial contiguity effect, eliminating redundancy avoid presenting identical streams of printed and spoken words
5. One or both channels are overloaded by the combination of essential processing and representational holding
Synchronizing, which results in a temporal contiguity effect, use individualizing make sure learners possess skill at holding mental representations
95
What is the key takeaway from the cognitive load theory?
We have limited processing power available to interact with computer programs and with other things. This means cognitive load limits how fast we can react to changes and act out what we want to do.
Knowing this, we can adapt our designs to these limitations, ensure that users do not get overburdened and that the cognitive load required for operations is as small as possible.
96
What are affordances?
Physical characteristics of a device or interface that allow its operation. Characteristics in the appearance of a device that give clues for its proper funtion.
97
What are the three types of affordances?
1. Cognitive: design feature that helps to think and/or know about somehting
2. Physical: design feature that helps to physically do somehting
3. Sensory: design feature that help to perceive see, hear, feel somehting.
98
What is the Hick-Hyman law?
The time that a user needs to make a choice, based on the number of options. Time is a funtion of the number of options and conditions under which you must make a decision.
Solution: Provide less options, unless the user knows beforehand which options they will choose, then it does not matter.
99
What is Fitt's law?
The time required to move a pointing device to a target is a function of the distance to the target and its size. It's related to the layout of the interface.
100
What is the centre COM part of the behaviour change wheel?
1. Capability
2. Opportunity
3. Motivation
101
What is stage 1 in systematic behaviour change?
1. Define the problem in behavioural terms
2. Select target behaviour
3. Specify target behaviour
4. Identify what needs to change
102
What is stage 2 in systematic behaviour change?
5. Identify intervention functions
| 6. Identify policy categories
103
What is stage 3 in systematic behaviour change?
7. Identify behaviour change techniques
| 8. Identity mode of delivery
104
App development = ?
Behaviour change + design
