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PTher 352 Introductory Statistics for the Health Care Professions > Theory > Flashcards

Theory Flashcards

1
Q

What are the five components of statistics?

A

Data collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation

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2
Q

What is Descriptive Statistics?

A

Summarizes and describes data

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3
Q

What is Inferential Statistics?

A

Uses sample data to draw conclusions about a population, often using mathematical methods

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4
Q

True or False: It is easy to misinterpret data, leading to faulty conclusions.

A

True

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5
Q

Define Dichotomous data.

A

Two distinct categories (e.g., yes/no)

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6
Q

Define Categorical data.

A

Data falls into unordered categories (e.g., survey results on medical specialties)

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7
Q

What is Short Ordinal data?

A

Ordered categories without a numeric difference between them (e.g., Likert scales)

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8
Q

Define Continuous data.

A

Data that can take any value on a scale (e.g., height, weight)

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9
Q

What is Rate Data?

A

Number of events over varying time periods, requiring specific mathematical analysis

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10
Q

What is the formula for Risk?

A

Number of events divided by the total sample size

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11
Q

What is Odds in statistics?

A

Number of events divided by the number of non-events

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12
Q

What is the Mean?

A

The sum of all values divided by the number of values

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13
Q

Define Median.

A

The middle value when data is ordered

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14
Q

What is Mode?

A

The most frequently occurring value

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15
Q

What does Range measure?

A

The difference between the minimum and maximum values

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16
Q

What is Inter-Quartile Range (IQR)?

A

Measures spread using the 25th and 75th percentiles

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17
Q

What do Variance and Standard Deviation describe?

A

How data varies around the mean

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18
Q

What is a Bar graph used for?

A

Categorical data

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19
Q

What does a Box plot display?

A

Data spread, including median, quartiles, and potential outliers

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20
Q

Define Skewness in data.

A

Asymmetrical distribution around the mean

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21
Q

What does Right skew (positive skew) indicate?

A

More data points are smaller than the mean

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22
Q

What does Left skew (negative skew) indicate?

A

More data points are larger than the mean

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23
Q

What is Probability?

A

The likelihood of an event occurring

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24
Q

Define Frequency-Based Probability.

A

Based on observed occurrences over many trials

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25
Define Model-Based Probability.
Based on mathematical models
26
Define Subjective Probability.
Based on personal beliefs or observations
27
What is Joint Probability?
P(A and B) is the probability that both events occur
28
What is Union Probability?
P(A or B) is the probability that at least one of the events occurs
29
What is Conditional Probability?
The probability of an event occurring given that another event has occurred, denoted as P(A|B)
30
What are Independent Events?
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does not affect the probability of the other
31
What are Mutually Exclusive Events?
Two events that cannot both occur at the same time
32
What is Bayes' Theorem?
Used to compute the probability of an event based on prior knowledge or evidence
33
What is Sensitivity in diagnostic tests?
Probability of a positive test if the subject has the disease
34
What is Specificity in diagnostic tests?
Probability of a negative test if the subject doesn't have the disease
35
Define Positive Predictive Value (PPV).
Probability of having the disease if the test is positive
36
Define Negative Predictive Value (NPV).
Probability of not having the disease if the test is negative
37
What does a Likelihood Ratio (LR) indicate?
Helps update a patient's odds of having a disease based on test results
38
What is a Diagnostic Threshold?
Defines the minimum requirement for a positive test
39
What does an ROC curve show?
The trade-off between sensitivity and specificity across different diagnostic thresholds
40
What is Risk Difference (RD)?
Shows the absolute difference in risk between two groups
41
What is Risk Ratio (RR)?
Compares the risk of an event in the treatment group to that in the control group
42
What is Odds Ratio (OR)?
Compares the odds of an event occurring in the treatment group to the control group
43
What is Number Needed to Treat (NNT)?
Quantifies how many individuals need to be treated to expect one additional success or failure
44
What does Relative Risk Reduction (RRR) represent?
How much lower the risk is in the treatment group compared to the control group
45
What is the Central Limit Theorem?
As sample size increases, the distribution of the sample mean approaches a normal distribution
46
What does the Standard Normal Distribution have?
Mean of 0 and standard deviation of 1
47
What is a Null Hypothesis?
States no effect or equality between groups
48
What is an Alternative Hypothesis?
States the effect or difference between groups
49
Define Type I error.
Occurs when we incorrectly reject a true null hypothesis
50
Define Type II error.
Happens when we fail to reject a false null hypothesis
51
What does Power represent in hypothesis testing?
The probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis
52
How is Standard Error (SE) related to Standard Deviation (SD)?
SE is smaller than SD and depends on sample size
53
What does Standard Error (SE) measure?
How well a sample mean estimates the population mean.
54
How does Standard Error (SE) compare to Standard Deviation (SD)?
SE is smaller than SD and depends on sample size.
55
In inferential statistics, what does SE quantify?
How much sample estimates vary from the population values.
56
What is the critical z-value for a 95% confidence interval?
1.96
57
What is a confidence interval (CI)?
A range of values that estimates an unknown population parameter.
58
What does a 95% confidence interval imply?
There is a 95% chance the true value falls within the interval.
59
What is a p-value?
The probability of observing a result (or more extreme) if the null hypothesis (Hâ‚€) is true.
60
When do we reject the null hypothesis based on p-value?
If the p-value is less than the significance level (typically 0.05).
61
True or False: A p-value indicates the probability that the null hypothesis is true.
False
62
What is the difference between a one-sided and two-sided p-value?
One-sided tests evaluate the effect in one direction, while two-sided tests evaluate both directions.
63
What is the difference between statistical and clinical significance?
Statistical significance is based on p-values, while clinical significance considers practical importance.
64
How is Standard Error calculated for mean differences and proportions?
It reflects the precision of the estimate.
65
Define paired observations in statistical studies.
Observations are linked, with each individual in one group paired with a counterpart.
66
What are parametric tests?
Tests that assume the data follow a specific distribution (e.g., t-test, ANOVA).
67
What are non-parametric tests?
Tests that do not assume a specific distribution and are used when parametric assumptions are not met.
68
What is the t-distribution used for?
To compare the means of two groups, especially with small sample sizes.
69
What is the purpose of a Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test?
Used for paired (dependent) data to determine significant differences.
70
What does ANOVA stand for?
Analysis of Variance
71
What are odds ratio, risk ratio, and risk difference used for?
To compare binary outcomes.
72
What does the chi-square test examine?
If there is an association between treatment and control in a contingency table.
73
What is Yates' correction for continuity?
A correction applied to the chi-square test for small sample sizes.
74
What is the Fisher's exact test used for?
To calculate the exact p-value for small contingency tables.
75
What is survival analysis?
A statistical method for measuring time until an event occurs.
76
What is censored data?
Data where the full event history is unknown, often due to loss to follow-up.
77
What do Kaplan-Meier curves visualize?
Survival data over time.
78
What does the log-rank test compare?
Survival distributions between two or more groups.
79
What is the hazard ratio (HR)?
The ratio of hazard rates between two groups.
80
What is Cohen's kappa used to compute?
The agreement between two raters for categorical data.
81
What does the least squares principle in regression analysis aim to minimize?
The sum of the squares of the residuals.
82
What is logistic regression used for?
To model binary outcome variables.
83
What is Simpson's paradox?
A phenomenon where a trend appears in different groups of data but disappears or reverses when these groups are combined.

PTher 352 Introductory Statistics for the Health Care Professions (1 decks)

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