Theory and History Flashcards

Question

Compare and discuss the differences between contrary motion, parallel motion, similar motion, and oblique motion.

Answer 1

These terms all refer to the simultaneous movement of two or more musical lines. The terms can describe vocal and instrumental musical lines. CONTRARY MOTION: The motion of two musical lines that move in opposite directions. PARALLEL MOTION : The motion of two lines that move in the same direction, whether upwards or downwards, while maintaining the same interval between the lines. SIMILAR MOTION : Two musical lines moving in similar directions, not maintaining the interval between the lines. OBLIQUE MOTION : The motion of two lines in which one stays stationary while the other musical lines moves upward or downward.

Answer 2

APPOGIATURA : There is a leap to a dissonance followed by a descending step. SUSPENSION : A dissonant tone sounds on a downbeat and is then resolved by a downward step. PASSING TONE : Moves in a stepwise motion through two consonant tones. NEIGHBOR TONE : Moves in a stepwise motion but returns to the original consonant tone. ESCAPE TONE : Dissonant note that is approached by step and resolved by a leap in the opposite direction.

Answer 3

Polyphony refers to the texture of many music that is made up of many equally important melodic lines. EQUAL-VOICE POLYPHONY : Polyphony that maintains the same thematic material in all the individual voices. An example of this is a canon in which the exact same melodic material enters sequentially after a uniform time interval. Fugues, inventions, and other forms of imitation are also good examples of equal-voice polyphony. UNEQUAL-VOICE POLYPHONY : Polyphony in which greater importance is given to one or more melodic lines. An example of this would be Medieval cantus firmus compositions that give musical precedence to the cantus firmus, usually sung or played in the tenor voice.

Answer 4

Begin with the elements of notation and the understanding of musical patterns. Students should learn about the treble clef, meter, bar line, measure, staff, octave, and intervals. Explore theme and variation as well as how musical patterns can function. Start with short 8-measure phrases, working on the sequencing and patterning of music. The teacher should use highly imaginative examples to demonstrate sound patterning, like a percussion interpretation of a thunderstorm or the sound a hopping frog might make. As students learn to integrate their imagination with musical sounds, the lessons can begin to focus more on musical compositional techniques like transcriptions, cadences, and different tonalities.

Answer 5

SIMPLE METERS Cannot be subdivided into smaller groups. 2/4, 4/4, 2/2, 4/2, 5/4, 3/4 COMPOUND METERS The number of pulses can be subdivided into groups of three. 6/8 has two beats that can be subdivided into six pulses per measure. Here, the dotted quarter note receives the beat, while the 8th note receives the pulse. Other examples include 9/8 and 12/8 meters.

Answer 6

Metrical accenting refers to the natural stresses on certain meats of a meter. In a simple 3/4 meter, the tendency for a metrical accent falls on the first beat. But in certain styles like the Polish Mazurka or other folk dances, the stress may be on the second beat. In 4/4 meter, there is naturally a primary stress on the downbeat of the measure and a secondary, weaker stress on the 3fd beat. In certain jazz pieces and world music, the accents may be on the second and 4th beats for stylistic accuracy. In compound meters like 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8, there's a natural accent on the first of every group of three 8th notes.

Answer 7

BINARY FORM: Two main sections, both repeated. The first section is labeled A and presents in the tonic key. The second section is A' (but is more often labeled B) is a precisely modified version of A. The musical material of A' is often in the dominant key if the tonic was major, or in the relative major key if the tonic was minor. Simple binary form is considered to be an open form as neither A nor A' can exist independently. ROUNDED BINARY FORM : There is a return to the original thematic material of A. The form can be ABA or AA'A. The initial A section as well as A'/B are both repeated as in simple binary form and shouldn't be confused with ternary form.

Answer 8

SIMPLE MUSICAL FORMS Tonal works that can be seen as complete and self-contained works that aren't divisible into other, smaller self-contained works. Examples of simple musical forms are binary and ternary forms. In each of them, there are thematic sections labeled A or B but neither of these sections can be further divided into simple forms. COMPOUND MUSICAL FORMS Tonal works that can be seen as a composite form that is made up of other smaller forms such as binary and ternary forms. Example of compound musical forms are sonata movements, symphony movements, and suites. Minuetto and Trio is another example of a compound musical form. The simple minuetto form surrounds the simple binary Trio form to create an overall ternary compound form.

Answer 9

When playing with a bow, the variables that affect dynamics are the speed and pressure of the bow. LOUDER (MF, F, FF) The bow must move faster and with more pressure to produce greater amplitudes in the vibrating sound waves. SOFTER (PP, P, PF) The bow must move a little slower with less pressure to produce smaller amplitudes in the vibrating sound waves. When the instruments are plucked, it is often notated in the score as pizzicato. It produces a sharper attack and the dynamics are similarly produced. Heavier plucks produce louder dynamics and softer plucks produce quieter dynamics.

Answer 10

Woodwind instruments produce sound through vibrations in an enclosed tube. They are set into motion by blowing through single or double reeds across or through an opening. SINGLE REEDS Produce a sound when air is blown through a reed that vibrates against the mouthpiece. Clarinet and Saxophone Double Reeds Produce a sound when the air is blown through two reeds that are tied together and vibrate Oboe, Bassoon, Sarrusophone. Some woodwind instruments produce sound when the player blows across the opening, like the transverse flute which is held sideways. Other woodwind instruments produce sound when the player blows directly into an opening, like the whistle and the recorder. To change the pitch of an instrument, you can shorten or lengthen the air column through covering/uncovering holes and keys.

Answer 11

1. JSTOR - Journal Storage Digital database that holds 32 scholarly journals dedicated to music. It includes Early Music History, Music Analysis, The Musical Quarterly, Perspectives of New Music, The Journal of Musicology, and many others. 2. THE MUSIC INDEX ONLINE A source for music periodicals and literature from 1973 to the present. It contains over 655 international music journals. 3. THE INTERNATIONAL INDEX OF MUSIC PERIODICALS Indexes over 425 scholarly and popular music periodicals including the International Journal of Music Education, Ethnomusicology, Jazz Education Journal, Rock and Rap Confidential, and Rolling Stone. 4. RIPM : RETROSPECTIVE INDEX TO MUSIC PERIODICALS Resource for scholarly writing on music history and culture, holding over 200 music periodicals in its database.

Answer 12

Pianissimo - Very soft Piano - Soft Mezzo Piano - Moderately soft Mezzo Forte - Moderately loud Forte - Loud Fortissimo - Very loud Crescendo - Play increasingly louder Decrescendo - Play increasingly softer

Answer 13

Stringed instruments produce sound through the vibrations of the strings on a resonating body, usually made of wood. The strings, made of nylon, steel, or silk, can be set in motion by plucking, bowing, or striking. As the string sets the surrounding air in motion, it also vibrates the soundboard through the bridge as the resonant vibrator and the audible tone effuses out of the instrument through sound holes. Pitches on stringed instruments are modified by string tension, thickness, and length. The higher the tension, the thinner and shorter the string, the higher the pitch. The looser the tension, the ticker and longer the string, the lower the pitch. Strings can be parallel to the soundboard like the lute, guitar, violin, piano, and dulcimer or can be at a right angle to the soundboard like the harp.

Answer 14

The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music - A 10-volume series of encyclopedic reference material covering all world music from 1988 and on, generally regarded as the authoritative source for information regarding ethnomusicology. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians - First published in 1879 and is the authoritative reference work for western music with over 20 volumes. The New Grove Dictionary - Now available online through Grove Music Online and is a part of Oxford Music Online. Oxford Music Online - Web resource containing several reference works covering a broad range of musical topics. The Encyclopedia of Popular Music - Initiated in 1989, it was a popular music counterpart to the New Grove Dictionary and is an authoritative reference work for all popular music including rock, pop, jazz, hip-hop, reggae, blues, electronica, and metal.

Answer 15

Dynamics for brass instruments are the product of the volume of air moving through the instrument, aka the velocity. Since sound is produced in brass through the buzzing of the player's lips, careful attention must be placed on lip technique when performing dynamic changes due to the interaction of the embouchure and the breath. The tendency of a pitch when moving in the direction of piano to forte, if the embouchure remains steady, is for the pitch to bend sharp or move to the next 'shelf' due to the increase in velocity. At lower dynamic ranges, the player must decrease airflow velocity, which requires additional diaphragm support and a firmer embouchure, in order to ensure that the pitch doesn't fall flat.

Answer 16

Minimalism began as a compositional movement in the late 1960's as a reaction to traditional goal-oriented, narrative, and representational music of the previous centuries. Minimalist music, an extension of experimental music, often features compositional techniques that emphasize the process of music rather than the motion towards a goal. Minimalist composers sought to create music that uses a minimal amount of notes, minimal instruments, and minimal focal points so that the music could become more of a wall of sound rather than a goal-oriented mission. Minimalist music tends to have a consonant harmony, perpetually repeated patterns/drones, interlocking rhythmic phrases and rhythms, and gradual transformation. The form tends to be continuous without well-defined separate sections. Notes may be added to a repeating pattern slowly so that the resulting effect of the music becomes somewhat hypnotic. Composers include : Steve Reich, Terry Riley, Philip Glass, John Adams, and La Monte Young.

Answer 17

The symphony was a major compositional form in the Classical era and refers to a large musical work usually for orchestra or another combination of instruments in four movements. The classical symphonic form has : 1. First Movement : Fast - Usually Sonata Allegro Form (exposition, development, recapitulation) 2. Second Movement : Slow - Usually a gentle, lyrical ABA pattern or a theme and variations. 3. Third Movement : Dance Form - Typically in a dance form such as the Scherzo or the Minuet and Trio. 4. Fourth Movement : Fast - Typically in Rondo or Sonata form in which a principal theme in the tonic key alternates with new episodes : ABACADA, etc.

Answer 18

Opera began as an art form in the late 16th century and consisted of a staged dramatic work with singers and orchestra. Oratorios Began as an art form in the 17th century and became popular in part because of the success of opera and because of religious bans on secular operas during lent. Usually center on religious or ethical subjects. Operas and oratorios are large-scale musical works that feature dramatic, musical, and narrative elements. They both utilize solo vocalists, chorus, ensembles, and orchestras. Operas Usually theatrically staged, while oratorios are not. Usually center on historical, mythological, or other secular plot lines. Famous Operas Jacopo Peri's Daphne Gioaccino Rossini's Barber of Seville Giacomo Puccini's Madame Butterfly W.A. Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro Guiseppe Verdi's La Traviata Gorges Bizet's Carmen Famous Oratorios G.F. Handel's Messiah Joseph Haydn's Creation Felix Mendelssohn's Elijah

Answer 19

Opera as a musical form had become widely accepted by the end of the 17th century. Two genres appeared as the philosophical focus as the new century turned its attention to the Enlightenment. Thinkers and composers of the enlightenment held that opera should reflect Greek values such as clarity and unity, structure and propriety. Opera Seria Focused on tragic and serious subjects that were historical rather than mythical. The structure, number of singers, and plot line were structured so that the action usually took place in three acts with alternating arias and recitatives and the number of characters usually numbers six or seven, with two to four main characters. Opera Buffa Focused on humorous and light-hearted elements. There was often a wide-range of characters, and spoken dialogue replaced recitative. The form was less structured and often featured prominent orchestral and instrumental parts. Music tended to be faster and helped portray comic elements of the plot line, such as laughter and sneezing.

Answer 20

Plot - The hero has a often has a goal but encounters limits through human frailty, the gods or nature and usually encounters suffering. Character - Must show essential qualities or morals that remain consistent throughout the plot. Thought - Is often displayed to drive the plot line and to reveal key elements Diction - Must be clear and serve the lines of the tragedy as one of the most important elements. Melody - Is subservient to words and should only be used to accessorize the plot. Spectacle - Refers to the setting of the drama and, like melody, should be used as an accessory.

Answer 21

Before the 19th century, horns had a range limited to the notes of the overtone series and cross or hand-stopping techniques that changed the pitch of the instrument. Though the hand-stopping technique added a wider range to the horn, tone and volume were highly variable. The trumpets of the classical era were more limited than the horns, although they also had a range limited to the notes of the overtone, hand-stopping techniques couldn't be used to add a wider range because of the length of the early trumpet. The invention of the valved horn and keys allowed players to play chromatically throughout their entire range. Composers became to incorporate more brass into their orchestral writing and as a result, they became essential instruments in any orchestras with leading parts and solos. The orchestral sound of the 19th century increased substantially in power and capacity. Wagner, Strauss, Stravinsky, and Mahler became known for their tremendously large orchestrations and vast scope of sound.

Answer 22

Program Music Represented non-musical ideas or imaged, flourished in the Romantic era with program symphonies, symphony poems, and character pieces with descriptive titles. Examples : Don Quixote by Richard Strauss, Danse Macabre by Camille Saint Saens, Symphonie Fantastique by Hector Berlioz, and The Sorcerer's Apprentice by Paul Dukas. Proponents of program music argued that music alone could not express anything and that music needed associations for audiences to fully grasp musical expression. Absolute Music Defined by opponents of program music as instrumental music that existed apart from extra-musical references, able to move audiences solely on the purity of the music itself. Recent scholars acknowledge that the divide over program music and absolute music is not as distinct as once believed and is open to interpretation.

Answer 23

Music of the middle ages was dominated by vocal music in two genres. Sacred music included Gregorian chant and masses, while secular music included music for dance and entertainment such as that of the troubadours and trouveres. Gregorian chant had melodies that were free flowing with not distinct meter, were melismatic, and largely monophonic, sung by unaccompanied voice or choir. Sacred music of the middle ages evolved with the development of the organum, an early form of polyphony in which voices were sun in parallel motion. Masses were also an important religious ritual and featured non-imitative polyphony. The most important form of medieval polyphony was the motet, which spanned both genres. By the end of the middle ages, secular music became the driving force of musical development and the music of troubadours and trouveres saw drone accompaniment, had regular meter, syncopations, polyphony, and harmony.

Answer 24

As one of the most important services of the Roman Catholic Church, the mass was a driving force of musical development in the Medieval and Renaissance eras. The liturgy of the Ordinary was most often set to music, and musical advancements were applied to the composition of the mass. By the Renaissance era, polyphony was common, musical notation had been refined, and complete masses were written by a single composer. The first mass by a known composer was Machaut's Mess de Notre Dame. As a large-scale form, the mass continued to appear in many composers' oeuvre including, Dufay, Josquin, Palestrina, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Berlioz, Verdi, Waver, Faure, and more. The genre declined through the 20th century but composers continued to set the mass to new musical settings (Hindemith, Stravinsky, Bernstein) The Ordinary includes six sections: Kyrie Gloria Credo Sanctus Benedictus Agnus Dei

Answer 25

Polyphony - All voices or parts hold similar musical prominence or interest, like sever distinct melodic lines occurring at the same time. The rhythm of each line in polyphonic music moves independently of one another. Homophony - Also has several voices or parts but melodic interest is reduced to a single voice or part. All other voices or parts support the main melody as accompaniment and move together in rhythmic likeness. It can be thought of as any form of melody and accompaniment texture. Monophony - Centers on a single melodic line. There are no accompaniment parts. A prime example of monophony is plainchant in which a single line of melody embodies the entire work itself.

Answer 26

The orchestrator uses the tonal characteristics of the different instrument families to meticulously layer each sound into a collective whole. Strings Have a rich tonal quality and form the basis of many orchestral textures. They have a variety of sounds and techniques and can easily function as melody, supporting harmony, or rhythmic texture. High Brass Have a clear, focused tonal quality and many times are used melodically or as a crisp rhythmic flourish. Low Brass Tend to provide bass lines as well as rhythmic motives. Woodwinds Have held various roles within the orchestra and can easily function as melody, supporting harmony, or rhythmic texture, much like strings. Percussion Instruments Have historically held a rhythmic role in orchestral writing, but have also been used as melodic interest through the marimba, timpani, and other melodic percussion instruments.

Answer 27

The North African region that includes present day Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria is also known by the Arabic term Maghrib (west). Although Egypt is geographically included on the African, it holds it own unique cultural, musical and sociopolitical place within North Africa. Arabic-Islamists ruled the Maghrib from the 7th to the 16th century. Beginning in the 11th century, Jewish and Muslim refugees from Al-Andalus region of the Iberian Peninsula brought with them the Arab-Andalusian music from traditions that originated in Baghdad. Elements of Arab influence in North African music include Quranic chant, poetry/harp/lute playing, and instruments such as the gimbri, drums, and metal castanets.

Answer 28

West Africa holds several local musical traditions such as those used in praise singing, various ceremonies, work activities, and national identities. Court musicians were responsible for continuing the oral tradition through singing and performing several instruments like the lute, long trumpet, fiddle, and drum. Drum ensembles in Ghana frequently use bell patterns, but those in Senegal, Niger, and other parts of Ghana use the talking drum (one of the oldest instruments in West Africa). Music plays an important role in birth, adulthood initiations, marriages, and death through singing, drumming, and dancing.. During ceremonies, professional musicians perform special music to induce trance, possession, or direct communication with spirits. Praise singing emerged in the 20th century through Ghanian musical genre called highlife, which incorporates guitar playing with traditional Akan music.

Answer 29

1400-1600 was a time of major change in western history. The 1400's marked the end of the Hundred Years War, the fall of the Byzantine Empire, and the end of the Great Schism. During the Renaissance, religious conflicts emerged through the Reformation, European colonialism expanded, and a middle class class grew in many European nations. As a result of the Ottoman Turks' victory, displaced Byzantine scholars brought ancient Greek writings with them to other European countries, and the Western world now had access to the plays and histories of ancient Greece for the first time. Renaissance art featured classical Greek and Roman ideals of humanism, clarity, and clean form. As a result, music of the Renaissance featured Greek modes, clarity of vocal lines, harmonic consonance, imitative counterpoint, and expressivity. The printing press was invented during this time to music became widely available to the expanding middle class.

Answer 30

The waltz is a dance form that has been popular since the 18th century and features triple meter in a lively tempo. The term literally means 'to turn about' and musical aspects of the waltz help dancers feel the refined and fluid motion of the turn. In waltz time, emphasis is on the downbeat, while the other two beats create a sense of floating, as on the dance floor. Early forms of the waltz featured two, simple, repeated phrases of about eight measures. As the dance evolved, the waltz became longer in form and more complex, with introductory materials as well as a coda. The ballroom dance achieve popularity across all of Europe and reached its height of fashion with tie Viennese waltz. Representative composers of the Viennese waltz include Joseph Lanner, Johann Strauss, Franz Schubert, Frederic Chopin, Franz Liszt, Johannes Brahms, and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.

Answer 31

Common features of African music include call and response singing, repeated and improvised musical figures, polyrhythm, and the use of African instruments such as congas, rattles, thumb pianos, claves, and drum ensembles. Calypso Music Originally developed in Trinidad, its a popular song and dance form in the Caribbean. Typically planed with a steel drum band, calypso music is witty, lively, and humorous. Rumba Another African song and dance form that is now popular in Cuba that uses conga drums and sticks. It has a 3-part form with fast polyrhythms and includes improvised verses and repetitive call and response sections. Merengue Prominent in both the Dominican Republic and Haiti, it is a popular song and dance style in a swift duple meter. Instruments with some African influences include the double-headed tambora drum and the metal guayo scraper.

Answer 32

Music of the Baroque era (1600-1750) was influenced by the rise of rationalism and the philosophy of time. Composers sought to portray emotions through objectivity rather than subjectivity and the expression of any one piece of music was limited to a single affect. Thorough bass was prominent during the Baroque era and a Baroque ensemble would typically read music and improve on a figured bass, also known as continuo. Ornamentation was used heavily during this period and consisted of embellished notes of a musical line, including trills, mordents, and grace notes that were rarely written out but instead were improvised by the performers. Claudio Monteverdi Girolamo Frescobaldi Arcangelo Corelli Antonio Vivaldi Domenico Scarlatti Francois Couperin Jean-Phillippe Rameau Georg Philipp Telemann G.F. Handel J.S. Bach Henry Purcell

Answer 33

The mambo is a song and dance genre of music that stems from the stems from the Afro-Cuban movement of the 1940's. It developed in Cuba with influences from Mexico and the USA, as well as those from European dances and African rhythms. It became popular in Latin America and crossed over to the United States where the mambo dance became a ballroom staple, especially in NYC. Mambo is performed by an ensemble that usually consists of double bass, bongo, tumbadora, trumpets, guitar, and voices. The mambo rhythms are moderate to fast and feature distinctive riffs for the rhythm section and brass instruments. Cowbells often play strong syncopations over the second beat in a mambo ostinato, while the conga drum varies struck tones through unaccented strokes, strongly accented strokes, and open tones.

Answer 34

Most of the Pre-Colombian indigenous musical culture of South America known today revolves around the Inca of Peru and Aztecs of central Mexico. The Spanish conquerors of the 16th century recorded the role of music in these highly developed civilizations that produced public ceremonies, professional musicians, and musician-specific educational institutions. Aztec and Inca rulers employed musicians who were responsible for new compositions and performances of large repertoires. Standards of performance were held high and a mistake in a ceremonial performance or dance could mean death. Since no evidence has been found of a Pre-Colombian musical notation, little is known about the actual sound and style of the music. However, evidence of Aztec and Inca instruments reveals those such as the huehuetl and teponaztli types of drums, gourd rattles, flutes and panpipes, clay jingles, wood and conch shell trumpets, bone rasps, and ocarinas.

Answer 35

Sonata form features 3 main sections: Exposition The melodic and harmonic themes of the movement are usually introduced here. The initial first subject is introduced in the tonic key, while the second subject is usually in the dominant or relative minor key. The bridge or a short transition connects the first and second subjects. Development The thematic material from the exposition is altered, modified, and transformed through mood, key, and modulations. It introduces tension that demands resolution. Tension builds until the beginning of the recapitulation Recapitulation Tonal balance is reinstated with a shortened version of the initial subject and the second subject, this time in the tonic key instead of the dominant or relative minor. A coda may round out the sonata at the end.

Answer 36

Authentic musical modes are commonly used in modern times and have origins in the Medieval and Greek musical traditions. Ionain - The major scale. Dorian - The natural minor scale with a raised 6th. Phrygian - The natural minor scale with a lowered 2nd. Lydian - The major scale with a raised 4th. Mixolydian - The major scale with a lowered 7th. Aeolian - The natural minor scale. Locrian - The natural minor scale with a lowered 2nd and 5th.

Answer 37

The djembe is a rope-tuned, skin-covered drum dating back to the Mali Empire around 1230 that can produce a variety of pitches through different hand-striking techniques and drum positions. Typically made out of hollowed-out wood, the djembe yields a large sound relative to its size and has been used for speech-like communication. Up until the 1950's, it was only known in its local West African ethnic groups but has since become popular in Western culture as well. In a traditional African ensemble, multiple drums are used, including a lead djembe and other dunun. Drummers repeat various rhythmic figures resulting in polyrhythms, while the lead djembe accentuates dancers' movements and improvises over the rest of the drumming ensemble. Musicians and singers typically form a circle with the dances on the inside.

Answer 38

Dialogue, also known as call and response, is an important and unique feature of African musical expression. Within musical aesthetics, dialogue occurs when a musical line responds to a previous musical line. This response can come from a different musician, instrument, group, or register within a solo performer. A vocal or instrumental leader might make a call, and another musician or group of musicians might respond with a musical interjection so that phrases are exchanged between the two groups. Solo performers can also have a musical dialogue through musical or extra-musical interjections such as whistles, percussive sounds, or other alternating musical phrases. The call and response form has been an influential African musical element that can bee seen in the music of blues, jazz, hip-hop, rock, and gospel.

Answer 39

Kabuki is a Japanese theater form stemming from the Edo period of the 1600's that was originally performed by females, now by males as well. Kesho, the kabuki makeup, is a hallmark of the art form in which a while oshiroi base is decorated with boldly colored kumadori to produce exaggerated and dramatic masks. There are 3 types of kabuki: Jidai-Mono - historical plays Sewa-Mono - domestic theater dramas Shosagoto - dance pieces. The form of a kabuki play generally contains four parts : 1. Deha - Includes 2 sections that introduce the mood and the characters (oki and michiyuki) 2. Chuha - Includes 2 sections that build the plot emotionally and dynamically )kudoki and monogatari) 3. Odoriji - A dance component 4. Iriha - Includes both the musical finale and the end of the plot (chirashi and dangire)

Answer 40

Call and Response Form - Heavily influenced other modern musical genres. - A central feature of African music for centuries Use of polyrhythms, syncopation, and offbeat phrasing in rhythmic patterns of the area. Cyclic Form - Various phrases with a set number of beats can be continued as long as the performers want - Musicians can begin at any part of the cycle and frequently improvise over the form. Instrument that jingle, rattle, or buzz are also popular in African Cultures - Examples include the mbira, dagbamba, xylophones, lultes, and harps that have been manipulated to buzz, jingle, or rattle when played.

Answer 41

Pipa A pear-shaped plucked lute traditionally made with silk thread that has 4 strings and bent neck. It has been an important and popular instrument since the 7th century and is often played as a solo instrument in performance. The standard tuning for the pipa is A-D-C-A and allows the full chromatic scale to be played. Erhu A lute often featured as a solo instrument. It has two strings and is typically made with snakeskin on the sound box and horsehair for the bow. Yangqin A trapezoidal, hammered dulcimer that is played solo as well as in ensembles. Dizi A transverse flute that plays an important roles in folk, operatic, and orchestral music. It includes a special hole in addition to the blowing and finger holes that gives the resulting sounds a nasal and buzzing quality when applied.

Answer 42

The maqam system of melodic organization used in Middle Eastern music most resembles the Western mode but is distinctively confined to the lower tetra-chord. There are more than 30 different maqamat and each defines the melodic contour, pitches, and hierarchal development of the scale. The maqam isn't even-tempered as in Western music as 5th notes are tuned based on the third harmonic. Additionally, each of the remaining notes may be tuned differently depending on which maqam is being used. Scalar intervals may include approximations of quartertones, semitones, and even microtones. Musicians frequently compose and improvise over a single maqam but may also modulate to others before returning. Since the nature of the Middle Easter maqam contains numerous subtle microtonal variations, music of the region is mostly melodic and is rarely ever harmonic.

Answer 43

The first Broadway songwriters of the 1920's included Irving Berlin, Jerome Kern, the Gershwins, Harold Arlen, Oscar Hammerstein, Richard Rodgers, and Cole Porter. American musical theater of the early 20th century was intricately tied to the New York music industry called Tin Pan Alley, a geographical location where musicians and composers came together to create popular new songs for the working class as a reaction against upper-class parlor music. The style borrowed heavily from the jazz scene as well as African-American sounds and themes. The success of Tin Pan Alley songs depended on large-scale production and stage shows on Broadway, and the first Broadway shows were loosely related to singing, dancing, and vaudeville music from Tin Pan Alley. Historians mark Show Boat (1927) by Kern and Hammerstein as the first full-fledged Broadway musical with a complete beginning-to-end plot.

Answer 44

Appalachian music refers to the folk traditions of the Eastern United States, specifically the Appalachian mountain range. The music is heavily influenced by the Irish, Scottish, and English emigrants of the 18th century and features musical traditions such as English and Scottish ballads, dance tunes, and fiddle songs. African-American musical traditions also contributed to the development of Appalachian music, and conventional aspects of Appalachian folk music, such as the banjo, strong rhythmic drive, harmonic blue notes, and group singing, all originate from African-American slaves of the time. Appalachian music features heavy ornamentation, improvisation, rhythmic and melodic focus, and an upbeat tempo. Typical instruments used in the genre include the banjo, mandolin, guitar, autoharp, fiddle, fretted dulcimer, dobro, and dulcimer.

Answer 45

Both the waltz and mazurka were important European dances of the Romantic era and became popular compositional forms in the 1800's. The waltz originated in southern Germany and Austria while the mazurka originated in the province of Mazovia in Poland. Both dances feature triple time but the waltz places emphasis on the downbeat while the mazurka places emphasis on either the second or third beats. Both dances usually consisted of two or four repeated eight-measure sections. The waltz eventually evolved to become a longer complex work within art music and included an introduction as well as a coda. The waltz usually held a faster tempo with an elegant style, but stylistic variation among mazurkas was common. Obertas were livelier and more jovial versions. Kujawiak were slower and more melancholic forms of the mazurka while the conventional mazurka typically featured an intense, militant aesthetic.

Answer 46

Early jazz music originated from a wide variety of cultural, social, and instrumental influences from the 1890's through the 1910's. New Orleans Jazz One of the earliest forms of jazz music and borrowed from the music of black and creole musicians. It featured frequent interplay between instruments, improvisations, and syncopated march rhythms. Blues Heavily influenced by the black church through improvisation, storytelling, call and response, vocal inflections, and the blues progression. Early jazz music also borrowed feature of American marching band music and ragtime, such as strong stride rhythms and multi-thematic material. Pianistic harmonies of composers such as Debussy and Ravel also contributed to early jazz music and composers also incorporated the claves and syncopations of Latin song and dance forms.

Answer 47

The deceptive cadence is defined as the dominant-sounding harmony progressing to a harmony that defies the expected tonic harmony, most commonly the submediant harmony. The leading tone of the dominant resolves to the tonic of the key, but the tonic pitch acts as either the third or fifth of the chord instead of the root. The dominant chord in deceptive cadences can progress to the submediant harmony, notated as V-VI or V-vi, or to the subdominant harmony, notated as V-IV of V-iv. The deceptive cadence is an important compositional tool in avoiding an ending and is useful not only in delaying or prolonging an ending but also transitioning to another structural section of music. The cadence is considered to be a weak cadence, as there is little to no sense of resolution in the music. Another name for a deceptive cadence is the interrupted cadence.

Answer 48

The half cadence is defined as any harmony professing to a dominant harmony. The preceding harmony can be the tonic, subdominant, supertonic, or any other harmony. A common half cadence is the tonic in 2nd inversion resolving to the dominant, notated as I64-V in Western tonal theory. This partial half cadence is known as the cadential tonic six-four, and shares the bass note from the six-four chord with the resulting dominant chord. Often times, the cadential tonic six-four progression occurs at the end of the first section in a two-part or binary piece of music. Other types of half cadences include the Phrygian half cadence, in which a first inversion subdominant chord proceeds to the dominant similarly in the Phrygian mode. The Lydian half cadence is another half cadence in which a first inversion subdominant chord is raised by a half step and then resolved to the dominant.

Answer 49

The circle of fifths describes the relationship and pattern of major and minor keys from one to the next as they move up or down in fifths. Moving up a 5th from C becomes G, moving up a 5th from G becomes D, etc. The circle of fifths is modeled so that eventually, with enharmonic naming, it goes through all 12 keys back to C. As each key moves on the the circle, a sharp or flat is added, dep3nding on the direction of the circle. For example, the key of C has zero flats. Moving down a fifth, F major has one flat. Moving down another 5th, Bb major has two flats, etc. The circle of fifths can be applied to both major and minor keys and is also useful in determining the degree of the relatedness among keys.

Answer 50

In Western tonal theory, the minor scale is the following pattern: whole-half-whole-whole-half-whole-whole. The minor scale is similar to the Aeolian mode of the Renaissance era. Natural Minor Scale - The minor scale without alterations. - Also known as the pure minor scale. Harmonic Minor Scale - The natural minor scale altered by raising the 7th note by a half step. Melodic Minor - The natural minor scale altered by raising the 6th and 7th notes by a half step when ascending but lowering to the natural minor while descending.

Answer 51

Music played a key role in Australian Aboriginal culture through storytelling, preserving history, and leading ceremonies. Since there was no formal system of writing, the Aborigines held a strong oral tradition. Records were passed down through generations via song and dance. The Aborigines believed that all music comes from the spiritual realm and new songs were discovered through visions and dreams. Music played an integral role in Aboriginal daily live and children were encouraged at an early age to sing and dance while doing everyday tasks. The Aborigines had songs that recorded family histories, geographies of the land, rules, and customs. The Aborigines also had secular gossip songs about controversies and relationships. Ceremonial music played an important role in the various spiritual ceremonies, whether to invoke ancestral beings or to purify items of the deceased.

Answer 52

Australian Aboriginal musical instruments include the digeridoo, the bull-roarer, and the gum leaf. Didgeridoo - Consists of a simple wooden tube that is slightly flared at the end. - Didgeridoo musicians buzz their lips similarly to trumpet players but without a mouthpiece. - The sound produced by the didgeridoo is likened to a low-pitched drone and often used to accompany songs or traditional stories. Bull-Roarer - Consists of a simple wooden slat connected to the end of a length of chord. - Sound is produced with the chord is wound and bull-roarer is whirled in a circular motion. - The aerodynamics of this instrument creates a pulsing, low-pitched roar. Gum Leaf - A more primitive Aboriginal instrument, yet still plays an important role in the culture and tradition of native Australians. - Musicians use the leaf of the Eucalyptus tree, held taut against the lip, as simple wind valve for the mouth. - Skilled players can easily play tunes using the same technique as in whistling.

Answer 53

Chords are related by inversion if they contain the same pitches with the same root but have different pitches surrounding the bass. Root Position A chord is considered to be in root position if the root of the chord is the lowest-sounding pitch. (C-E-G) First Inversion The third of the chord is the lowest-sounding pitch. (E-G-C) Second Inversion The fifth of the chord is the lowest-sounding pitch. (G-C-E) For seventh chords, the classifications are similar except for the addition of a third inversion. Third Inversion The seventh of the chord is the lowest sounding pitch (B-C-E-G)

Answer 54

The nose flue is a widely important wind instrument throughout the Pacific, except for Australia and New Zealand. Commonly made out of bamboo, the nose flute is played through a single nostril while the other is held shut. Since the nose flute produces a soft and gentle sound, it played an important role in many Polynesian musical traditions. The nose flute was popular during courtship and lovemaking as the timbre and tone had an enticing sound. As a quiet instrument, it encouraged intimacy and privacy for current and prospective lovers. In Tonga, the nose flute was also used as a respectful way to gently awaken the chief of a tribe. Some cultures even believed that nose flutes were also instruments that could evoke magical and spiritual qualities.

Answer 55

The plagal cadence is defined as the subdominant sounding harmony resolving to the tonic harmony, notated as IV-I or iv-i in Western tonal theory. Since there is the absence of a leading tone resolution in a plagal cadence, it isn't considered as final or as strong of a cadence as the authentic cadence. Oftentimes, the plagal cadence is found as an extension of an authentic cadence, embellishing the final tonic through the neighboring notes of the third and fourth scale degrees, and of the fifth and sixth degrees. The plagal cadence is a common ending to many Protestant hymns, and is also known as the 'Amen Cadence,' as the cadence is set to the word 'amen.' The plagal cadence is so closely associated with Protestant hymns that some composers have used the IV-I progression as an allusion to its sacred usage.

Answer 56

The authentic cadence is defined as a dominant sounding harmony resolving to the tonic harmony, notated as V-I or v-i in Western tonal theory. The authentic cadence is considered to be the strongest cadence because of the presence of the supertonic to tonic progression as well as the leading tone-to-tonic progression. In voice leading, these two progressions exhibit the highest tension and release moments within music theory. An authentic cadence be perfect or imperfect. A perfect authentic cadence has both the roots of the V and I chords sounding in the bass and the tonic as the highest-sounding note on the final chord. An imperfect authentic cadence does not involve all the conditions required to be a perfect authentic cadence and so it may not have the tonic sounding in the highest note of the final chord or may have inverted chords.

Answer 57

The impressionist movement in music was influenced by the synonymous movement in visual arts by painters such as Monet, Cezanne, Degas, Manet, and Renoir, in which subtle brushstrokes obscured any sharp lines to give a general "impression" of a scene without precise details. French composer Claude Debussy developed a musical equivalent in which sound defied strict harmonic rules and soft instrumental colors focused on constant movement without distinct sectional borders, giving the audience a similar effect as an impressionist art of a general experience rather than one that draws attention to specific details. Melodies tended to center around a single pitch without much climax, similar to the individual brushstrokes used by impressionist painters of the time. Debussy was a key impressionist imposer. Other composer who have worked in the impressionist aesthetic include Maurice Ravel, Bela Bartok, Oliver Messiaen, Gyorgy Ligeti, and George Crumb.

Answer 58

Latin jazz is a style that originated in the late 1940's when musicians merged the rhythms and instruments of Afro-Latin music with American jazz music. The two prominent sub-genres of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Afro-Brazilian jazz. Afro-Cuban Jazz - Incorporated Cuban rhythms such as the mambo and habanera with elements of bebop. - Their bass lines featured distinctive syncopated rhythms labeled as either 2-3 clave or 3-2 clave. Afro-Brazilian Jazz - Incorporated rhythms of samba known as bossa nova, featured a laid-back singing style, increased textural complexity, and a distinctive rhythmic pattern known as the bossa nova clave. Famous Latin jazz musicians include: Mario Bauza, Luciano Pozo, Frank Grillo, W.C. Handy, Dizzy Gillespie, Antonio Carlos Jobim, and Joao Gilberto.

Answer 59

The Nationalist movement was a facet of the Romantic era during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in which music evoked the national or regional character of a place. Composers used folk music in their compositions either as a direct quote or as framework for the composition of melodies and rhythms that resemble folk music of the area. Russia : Glinka, Borodin, Balakireve, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov Czechoslovakia : Smetana, Dvorak, Janacek Norway/Finland : Grieg, Sibelius England : Elgar, Vaughn Williams, Holst Spain : Albeniz, Granados, deFalla Hungary : Bartok, Kodaly United States : Ives, Harris, Gershwin, Copland

Answer 60

Organum is considered to be one of the earliest forms of polyphony and appeared in the Medieval period. Organum was based on a cantus firmus (a pre-existing melody) and began as improvised voices that duplicated the original melody. Organum types included parallel voices at the octave and parallel voice at the fifth below. Composers adjusted lines to avoid tritones as necessary. Organum expanded to include contrary and oblique motion, as well as free or florid organum in which the tenor chant held notes and upper voices decorated the tenor with phrases of varying length. In the 12th century, the development of the descant in organum moved the compositional techniques further towards polyphony as voices became increasingly complex and independent. By the 13th century, the motet had replaced organum as a major polyphonic genre.

Answer 61

Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1051) was an Austrian theorist and painter, and one of the most influential composers of his time. He developed the 12-tone technique of music in which all 12 pitches of the chromatic are treated as equal, rejecting the conventions of traditional tonality. The 12 pitches are ordered into a series that becomes the basic structure for the composition. The pitches can be in any range or duration but they must be introduced in the composition in that order. Schoenberg's revolutionary system of composition broke away from the traditional tonality of the 20th century and abandoned any hint of a tonal center. The impact of his 12-tone system of composition continued in the music of Milton Babbit, Pierre Boulez, Charles Wuorinen, Anton Webern, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Alban Berg, Luigi Nono, and Roger Sessions.

Answer 62

The bossa nova movement originated in Rio de Janerio, Brazil in the late 1950's and combined elements of the popular Brazilian samba with elements of American jazz. It soon became popular in the United States and then became an international sensation. Bossa nova is characterized by a laid-back singing style, complex harmonies, and a distinctive rhythmic pattern known as the boss nova clave. The music of bossa nova often features acoustic guitar as a principal instrument and also includes bass, drums, voice, and piano. The bossa nova rhythm, often notated in duple meter, starts with a downbeat but is otherwise syncopated to give a swaying feeling rather than a strong, measured pules. Representative Composers: Antonio Carlo Jobim, Joao Gilberto, Vinicius de Moraes, Sergio Mendes, Roberto Menescal, Nara Leao Famous Tunes: Chega de Saudade, Girl From Ipanema, Desafinado, Corcovado, Aguas de Marco, Mas Que Nada.

Answer 63

The term leitmotif is used to identify a reoccurring motivic fragment that musical represents some part of a musical drama, usually a person, place, or idea. The leitmotif must be clearly recognizable by its melody, harmonic progression, or rhythm. In the context of opera, the leitmotif becomes a useful tool for composers as character development and the unfolding of the story. In a musical drama, the leitmotif can reinforce the action taking place on stage, as well as recall an event or person from a previous scene. The leitmotif can also be modified through thematic transformation and even combined with other leitmotifs to suggest a change in the narrative and the characters' relationships. The term is most often associated with Wagner's later operatic works, although he preferred the terms Grundthema and Hauptmotiv instead.

Answer 64

At the end of the 19th century, Romantic music reached the height of expressive nationalism with the large-scale works of program music by composers such as Tchaikovsky, Liszt, and Mahler. The beginning of the 20th century brought about Modernism and the rejection of tonality by experimental composers such as Schoenberg, Boulez, Berg, and Webern. Neoclassicism was a trend of the 20th century that emerged as a reaction to the emotionalism of the late Romantic era and the abandonment of tonality in the early 20th century. Composers of the neoclassical movement sought a return to the order, restraint, clarity, and formal balance of the music of the 18th century. Neoclassical music usually featured restraint, lighter texture, objectivity, a transparent melodic line, and a call to music of the past. Prominent Composers: Paul Hindemith, Igor Stravinsky, Richard Strauss, Sergei Prokofiev, Manuel de Falla, Aaron Copland.

Answer 65

Music of the blues originated through African work songs that were brought over to the United States in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The rise of the blues occurred approximately around the time of the emancipation of slaves in the US, especially in the Mississippi delta and east Texas. Elements such as the call and response format, the unaccompanied voice, and accompaniment styles all have roots in traditional African music. By the mid 12th century, the blues had a standard 12-bar harmonic progression: I-I-I-I-IV-IV-I-I-V-IV-I-I. The blues also utilizes the blues scale that features a lowered third and a dominant seventh, called the "blues notes." Music usually centers on a melancholy emotion, with instrumental and vocal techniques such as moans, growls, and cries to express emotion. Famous blues musicians: include Blind Lemon Jefferson, Charley Patton, Blind Blake, Blind Willie McBell, Leadbelly, Bukka White, Big Bill Broonzy, Muddy Waters, B.B. King, and T-Bone Walker.

Answer 66

The motet was a major musical form of the Medieval and Renaissance periods that emerged from medieval organum and clausulae. Medieval Motet - Featured a tenor line derived from plainchant with one or more upper voices in French or Latin. - Tenor vocal line usually had a short, repeated rhythmic pattern. - Upper voices had contrasting, lively parts. - Texts of the upper voices were sometimes independent and in a different language from the tenor line. Renaissance Motet - Referred more to a genre of music than to a certain form or structure. - By the mid 15th century, the motet was known as a polyphonic setting of any sacred Latin text, not restricted to the liturgy. - Composers of the Renaissance introduced imitation, homophony, and four-part harmony to the motet.

Answer 67

Harmonic language before Wagner was dominated by the rules of diatonicism and straightforward voice leading. By the middle of the 19th century, composers started to explore ideas of chromaticism and common tone relationships rather than strong root progressions. The arrival of Wagner's Tristan and Isolde brought a major change to the harmonic language of the past and sealed a new era of modern compositional techniques. In the four-hour opera, chromaticism plays a prominent role in the dissolution of typical harmonic expectation. Now known as the Tristan chord, the leitmotif of the main character reveals a functionally ambiguous tritone chord, which instead of resolving, it progresses to another equally chromatic and dissonant tritone chord. Wagner's use of harmonic suspension, full chromaticism, polyphony, and range of colors in Tristan and Isolde paved the way to the modern collapse of traditional tonal writing and to the advent of experimental, atonal compositions of the 20th century such as those of Bruckner, Mahler, and Schoenberg.

Answer 68

In the Baroque era, music was stylistically ornate and heavily ornamented. During this period, tonality was established, counterpoint was invented, and the size/range/complexity of orchestrations were expanded. By the end of the Baroque era, music innovations became so complex that a new aesthetic was formed in reaction to the overly-embellished Baroque aesthetic. Homophony replaced polyphony, simplicity replaced complexity, and gentler sentiment replaced strong passion. With the prominence of homophony, classical music featured a slower harmonic rhythm than the ornate Baroque music that featured a linear bass line. Classical composers emphasized a natural melody above textureal complexity and wrote music with a clear phrase and period structure. Instead of keeping a musical piece in one affect as in the Baroque period, Classical composers introduced stylistic contrasts within a piece.

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