Theory and Methods

Question 1

Why Do Sociologists Do Research?

Why do sociologists conduct research?

Answer 1

To learn about society, establish cause and effect, influence social policy, hold power to account, and build careers through fame or academic recognition.

Question 2

Choosing a Research Topic

What factors influence a sociologist’s choice of research topic?

Answer 2

Theoretical perspective, personal values, societal values, funding availability, and previous research.

Prior data, wanting to disprove (falsify) old data.

Funding from companies.

Question 3

Choosing a Research Topic

How can current trends influence research topics?

Answer 3

Sociologists may choose “popular” topics gaining media attention to increase impact and relevance.

Question 4

Types of Data

What is primary data?

Answer 4

Data collected first-hand by the researcher through methods like interviews, questionnaires, or experiments.

Question 5

Types of Data

What is secondary data?

Answer 5

Data collected by someone else, e.g., government stats or previous studies/documents

Question 6

Types of Data

What is qualitative data?

Answer 6

Descriptive, non-numerical data that explores meaning, experiences, and perspectives, used to understand social phenomena.

Question 7

Types of Data

What is quantitative data?

Answer 7

Numerical data used to identify patterns, trends, and generalizations, its quantifiable, can come in the form of numbers or percentages, used to discover patterns or trends or relationships between populations.

Question 8

Theoretical Perspectives

Which theories prefer macro, quantitative/positivist methods?

Answer 8

Structuralist theories like Functionalism, Marxism, and Liberal Feminism

Question 9

Theoretical Perspectives

Which theories prefer micro, qualitative/interpretivist methods?

Answer 9

Social Action Theories like Interactionism, Symbolic Interactionism, and Intersectional/Difference Feminism. (Max Weber, Mead Goffman)

Question 10

Positivism vs Interpretivism

What is positivism?

Answer 10

view social phenomena as objective facts that can be studied scientifically using quantitative methods and empirical evidence to discover general laws and patterns.

Question 11

Positivism vs Interpretivism

What is interpretivism?

Answer 11

a methodological approach that emphasises understanding the subjective meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to actions and experiences, strive for verstehen

Question 12

PET — Choosing a Method

What does PET stand for in research methods?

Answer 12

Practical, Ethical, and Theoretical factors

Question 13

PET — Choosing a Method

What are examples of practical factors?

Answer 13

Time, cost, and access to participants.

Question 14

PET — Choosing a Method

What are key ethical concerns?

Answer 14

Avoiding harm, gaining informed consent, and avoiding deception.

Question 15

PET — Choosing a Method

What are key theoretical concerns?

Answer 15

Validity, reliability, methodological responses and representativeness.

Question 16

Sampling Methods

What is a sample in sociological research?

Answer 16

a small group of people that represent a larger population, used when the target population is too big to research.

Question 17

Sampling Methods

Why do sociologists sample?

Answer 17

to efficiently study large populations, saves time

it’s impractical to study large groups, sociologists are able to make a generalisation

Question 18

Sampling Methods

Name 5 types of sampling methods.

Answer 18

Random, Systematic, Stratified, Quota, Opportunity.

Question 19

Sampling Methods

What is random sampling. What are it’s strengths and weaknesses?

Answer 19

ensures that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

positives: reduces bias, creates a representative sample

negatives: can be time consuming as hard to implement, may not be fully representative

Question 20

Sampling Methods

What is systematic sampling? What are any strengths or weaknesses?

Answer 20

involves picking every nth person from a list

positives: simple and convenient to use, even distribution across the population

negatives: less random than pure random sampling, if theres an underlying pattern in the population it could introduce bias.

Question 21

Sampling Methods

What is stratified random samping? What are any strengths or weakness?

Answer 21

the population is divided into different subgroups and sets of people are picked from each

positives: ensures representation of different social groups, reduces sample error

negatives: requires detailed knowledge of population characteristics, more time-consuming to organise

Question 22

Sampling Methods

What is quota sampling? What are any strengths and weaknesses?

Answer 22

researchers select participants based on predetermined characteristics, not at random

positives: quick and cost effective, representation of all groups without the need of a population list

negatives: may have bias’, may not be fully repesentative

Question 23

Sampling Methods

What is opportunity sampling? What are any strengths and weaknesses?

Answer 23

select people who are most conveniently available, e.g. students in a classroom

positives: useful for pilot studies or exploratory research, convenient

negatives: highly biased, results may not be able to be generalised

Question 24

Sampling Methods

Which sampling methods do positivists prefer?

Answer 24

Random and systematic (for generalizability).

Question 25

# Sampling Methods Which do interpretivists prefer?

Answer 25

Quota and opportunity (for depth and access).

Question 26

# Primary Research Methods - Lab experiment What are lab experiments and give 2 examples?

Answer 26

conducted in an artificial setting using highly controlled variables. The Bobo Doll experiment, the Stanford University Prison experiment

Question 27

# Primary Research Methods - Lab experiment What are some strengths of lab experiments?

Answer 27

Practical: variables can be controlled easier, can establish cause-and-effect relationships Ethical: can gain informed consent (Zimbardo's prison experiment) Reliability: highly replicable Validity: high internal validity bc of controlled variables Theoretical: positivists favour lab experiments for their scientific and objective nature

Question 28

# Primary Research Methods - Lab experiment What are some weaknesses of lab experiments?

Answer 28

Practical: can be expensive and time-consuming Ethical: some may involve deception or psychological distress Reliability: human behaviour is complex, may vary dependant on context Validity: low external validity Representativeness: small scale, can't be generalised Theoretical: interpretivists say they lack depth and real-life applicability

Question 29

# Primary Research Methods What is a field experiment?

Answer 29

take place in a real-life setting -e.g. Rosenthal & Jacobson classroom study

Question 30

# Primary Research Methods What is a questionnaire?

Answer 30

a written self-completion survey which is filled out anonymously

Question 31

# Primary Research Methods What is the difference between open and closed questions?

Answer 31

Open: no set responses (multiple choice), free to respond with anything, generates verstehen Closed: set responses to chose from, generate social facts

Question 32

# Primary Research Methods What are some advantages of closed questionnaires?

Answer 32

Practical: quick and easy to distribute, no interviewer needed Ethical: informed consent is provided Reliability: standardised questions ensure consistency Validity: less chance of interviewer bias Representativeness: can reach a large sample Theoretical: favoured by positivists, quantitative

Question 33

# Primary Research Methods What are some disadvantages of closed questionnaires?

Answer 33

Ethical: some questions may be slightly sensitive, may feel restricted in their answers Validity: answers lack depth Representativeness: people with certain characteristics may feel more inclined to answer Theoretical: interpretivists - doesn't capture the complexity of human behaviour

Question 34

# Primary Research Methods What are some advantages of open questionnaires?

Answer 34

Practical: thoughts expressed freely Validity: detailed and unrestricted, more depth Representativeness: capture diverse perspectives Theorists: favoured by interpretivists, more meanings and motivations discussed (qualitative)

Question 35

# Primary Research Methods What are some disadvantages of open questionnaires?

Answer 35

Practical: time-consuming to analyse Ethical: some responses may reveal personal information Reliability: hard to replicate, different interpretations of answers Representativeness: some groups more likely to take part Theoretical: positivists dislike, hard to quantify

Question 36

# Primary Research Methods What are some examples of open and closed questionnaires?

Answer 36

Open: used in crime or mental health cases where depth is crucial Closed: used in large scale surveys UK Census (good) Hite's study on love and relationships (limited validity)

Question 37

# Primary Research Methods What are all the types of interview? And what are they?

Answer 37

Structured/formal: strict instructions for the interviewer on how to carry it out Unstructured/informal: guided conversation, interviewer has freedom Semi-structured: same set of questions but interviewer can add questions Group interviews: asks group to share views and discuss

Question 38

# Primary Research Methods What are some advantages of structured interviews?

Answer 38

P: inexpensive, can cover large numbers efficiently E: informed consent, can withdraw if needed R: everyone answers the same questions, can be replicated V: misunderstandings can be clarified easily E: Young & Willmott extended families in London study R: higher response rates than questionnaires T: favoured by positivists

Question 39

# Primary Research Methods What are the disadvantages of structured interviews?

Answer 39

P: more costly than a questionnaire, pay intervieweer E: some may feel pressured to answer in a certain way V: questions may limit insight and depth from sample, Hawthorne Effect R: some people more likely to attend than others T: interpretivists - they impose researcher's framework

Question 40

# Primary Research Methods What are participant observations?

Answer 40

The researcher joins and observes a group from within, can understand the meaning they give to a situation. -non-participant would be the researcher being detached, not immersing themselves in the group

Question 41

# Primary Research Methods What’s the difference between overt and covert observation?

Answer 41

Overt = open, participants know; Covert = hidden, participants unaware.

Question 42

# Primary Research Methods Participant Observation positives and negatives?

Answer 42

Practical: can research groups that are harder to access, but it's time consuming and expensive Ethical: covert raises issues around deception and informed consent Reliability: hard to replicate Validity: can capture meanings better, hawthorne effect negative Example: Patrick research on Glasgow gangs Representativeness: detailed understanding of a group, harder to generalise Theoretical: favoured by interpretivists, can develoop verstehen

Question 43

# Primary Research Methods Non- Participant Observation positives and negatives?

Answer 43

P: easier to conduct, but it may be harder to interpret information E: concerns about consent if being observed covertly R: more structured than participant, but lacks depth V: less risk of influencing participant behaviour, but no asking for clarification of behaviour E: Willis' learning to labour study R: conducted on a micro scale T: favoured by positivists

Question 44

# Secondary Research Methods What are official statistics?

Answer 44

quantitative data recorded and published by the government, track social trends and patterns

Question 45

# Secondary Research Methods What’s the difference between hard and soft statistics?

Answer 45

Hard: legally recorded e.g. birth rates Soft: less reliable, validity can be questioned e.g. unemployment or crime rates

Question 46

# Secondary Research Methods What are the positives and negatives of official statistics?

Answer 46

P: readily available, cost-free, and large scale but definitions may change E: usually anonymous, however, results can be manipulated by the government to create a better look R: constistent and standardised V: hard are generally accurate, however, soft may be misleading E: Durkheim research on suicide R: large scale, can generalise T: favoured by positivists

Question 47

# Secondary Research Methods What is a document?

Answer 47

refer to any written texts, used by sociologists to analyse the priorities, values or concerns of a society at any given time

Question 48

# Secondary Research Methods What are the three types of document and what are they?

Answer 48

Public: available to the public, created by government Personal: private writings or recordings Historical: study the evolution of society's values over time using diaries or government documents

Question 49

# Secondary Research Methods What was Scott's criteria for analysing a document?

Answer 49

Credibility Representativesness Authenticity Meaning

Question 50

# Secondary Research Methods What are the positives and negatives of documents?

Answer 50

P: readily available, but some my be difficult to access E: some may contain sensitive topics, need careful handling R: content analysis can be carried out & quantifiable, but it's hard to replicate V: high in validity E: Thomas & Znaniecki's study on Polish immigrants R: can be detailed on groups, but micro scale T: favoured by interpretivists

Question 51

# Secondary Research Methods What is content analysis?

Answer 51

A method for analyzing media and documents for patterns, themes, and representation.

Question 52

# Secondary Research Methods What are the 3 types of content analysis?

Answer 52

Formal (counting) -objective, favoured by positivists, see patterns, content could be classified Thematic (underlying message) -can see ideological bias but media is polysemic Textual (deep language analysis) -very in depth and micro analysis but subjective

Question 53

# Secondary Research Methods What’s an example of formal content analysis?

Answer 53

Tallying gender roles in Disney films (Eisenhower study).

Question 54

# Secondary Research Methods What is thematic content analysis used for?

Answer 54

Exploring meanings, like Walby’s study on rape portrayal in newspapers.

Question 55

# Secondary Research Methods How is content analsyis carried out?

Answer 55

Identify sociological problem --> operationalise the concept --> choose and study the source --> count the frequency in each category --> compare findings with others

Question 56

# Secondary Research Methods What are some positives and negatives of content analysis?

Answer 56

P: can research large amounts of media, but categories are subjective and open to interpretation E: media content may be sensitive or controversial R: easy to replicate as coding categories constantly applied V: can reveal hidden meanings and patterns in media, but my oversimplify complex meanings into quantitative data E: Lobban's study on gender stereotypes in books R: analyse a wide range of sources T: favoured by positivists