Topic 1 Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Aorta
A
main blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
2
Q
arteriole
A
small blood vessel that connects arteries with capillaries
3
Q
artery
A
type of blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart at high pressure
4
Q
atrium
A
chamber that receives blood from veins and pumps into ventricles
5
Q
capillary
A
blood vessel with small diameter and thin walls, used for substance exchange in tissues
6
Q
coronary artery
A
main artery that supplies heart tissues with blood
7
Q
left atrium
A
the chamber in the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein and passes it on to the left ventricle
8
Q
left ventricle
A
the chamber in the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it out to the rest of the body
9
Q
pulmonary artery
A
main artery that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for reoxygenation
10
Q
pulmonary vein
A
main vein that brings oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
11
Q
right atrium
A
the chamber in the heart that receives deoxygenated blood directly from the vena cava and passes it onto the right ventricle
12
Q
right ventricle
A
chamber in the heart that receives deoxygenated blood from right atrium and pumps it to lungs for reoxygenation
13
Q
vein
A
type of blood vessel that carries blood at a lower pressure into the heart from other parts of the body
14
Q
vena cava
A
main vein that carries deoxygenated blood into right atrium of the heart
15
Q
ventricle
A
type of chamber in the heart that receives blood from the ventricles above it and pumps it out of the heart
16
Q
venule
A
a small blood vessel that connects capillaries with veins
17
Q
atrial systole
A
blood from pulmonary veins and vena cava , atria contract and blood leaks into ventricles, atrioventricular valves open - 0.1 secs
18
Q
ventricular systole
A
ventricles contract from base of heart, pressure forces semilunar valves open, blood pushed up and out through pulmonary arteries and aorta, atrioventricular valves close to prevent backflow of blood - 0.3 secs
19
Q
cardiac diastole
A
atria and ventricles relax, elastic recoil lowers pressure, blood in pulmonary arteries and aorta leak into ventricles, coronary arteries fill, semilunar valves close, low pressure helps draw blood back into the heart from veins - 0.4 secs
20
Q
what is atherosclerosis
A
hardening of arteries caused by build up of atheroma
21
Q
what is atheroma
A
hard plaque
22
Q
what is the process of atherosclerosis
A
endothelium becomes damaged -> WBCs enter artery wall, cells accumulate chemicals especially cholesterol, fatty deposits build up and form atheroma, calcium salts and fibrous tissue build up - hard swelling, artery wall loses elasticity, artery narrows, blood pressure rises
23
Q
what mechanism is the build up of plaque and rise in blood pressure
A
positive feedback mechanism
24
Q
how does a blood clot form after atherosclerosis
A
platelets come into contact with damage on artery wall and become sticky, platelet plug forms and thromboplastin is released, cascade of chemical changed occur, prothrombin, thrombin, fibrinogen, fibrin, then a tangled mesh forms and blood cells become trapped, a blood clot forms
25
why is atherosclerosis specific to arteries
the rapid-flowing blood is under high pressure in arteries so there is significant risk of damage to artery walls
26
what can atherosclerosis lead to if its in the coronary arteries
the cardiac muscle won't get enough food, water or blood so it leads to a heart attack
27
what can atherosclerosis lead to if its in the main arteries
it can lead to the brain being starved of oxygen due to lack of blood flow which leads to stroke
28
what can atherosclerosis lead to if its in the legs
it can lead to tissue death and gangrene
29
what can atherosclerosis lead to
direct blockage of an artery or increased risk of blockage by blood clots
30
what is pulmonary circulation
loop between heart and lungs
31
what systemic circulation
circulation around the body to organs
32
how is amylopectin adapted for function
long branched chains
side branches allow the enzymes that break down the molecule to get at the glycosidic bonds so that glucose can be released rapidly
33
what is the composition of starch
30% amylose and 70% amylopectin
34
is starch soluble and why is this important
no it is insoluble otherwise it would cause water to to enter cells by osmosis which would make them swell and burst
35
how is glycogen adapted to its function
lots of side branches so glucose is released quickly, very compact, insoluble so doesn't cause cells to swell, large molecule so it can store lots of energy
36
describe the structure of amylopectin
long chain of alpha glucose molecules bonded by 1,4 glycosidic bonds with branches joined by 1,6 glycosidic bonds
37
describe structure of glycogen
long chain of alpha glucose molecules bonded by 1,4 glycosidic bonds and branches joined by 1,6 bonds but has more side chains than amylopectin
38
how is amylose adapted to function
amylose is a long chain and angles in it 1,4 glycosidics give it a coiled structure allowing it to be compact which is good for storage so it can be fitted into smaller space
39
what is the structure of sucrose
1 alpha glucose and a fructose with 1,2 glycosidic bonds
40
describe structure of amylose
long chain of alpha glucose molecules bonded by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
41
compare disaccharides and monosaccharides in terms of solubility and energy storage
disaccharides are less soluble than monosaccharides but their chemical bonds store more energy
42
what is the difference between alpha glucose and beta glucose
the H/OH on Carbon 1 (C on the right) is flipped to be OH/H on beta
43
how does the chemical structure of glucose relate to its function
makes it soluble - easily transported and chemical bonds contain a lot of energy that's why it is the main source of energy in animals and plants
44
what is the structure of maltose
2 alpha glucose molecules bonded by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
45
what is the structure of lactose
1 beta glucose and 1 galactose with 1,4 glycosidic bonds
46
what is the equation for energy budget
energy input - energy output = budget
47
what is the recommended daily calorie intake for women and men
fe = 2000 me = 2400
48
what colour change is observed when DCPIP is in the presence of vitamin C
from blue dye to colourless
49
how do platelet inhibitory drugs reduce risk of CVD
eg aspirin
prevent platelets from clumping together ti form a clot therefore less chance of clot formation therefore less chance of blockage and less risk of CVD
50
what are the side effects of platelet inhibitory drugs
excessive bleeding, diarrhoea, nausea and liver function problems
51
what is an energy budget
the amount of energy taken in by an organism and the amount of energy used by an organism
52
what happens if there is an energy budget imbalance
affects the weight
if input is higher than output - gain weight
excess energy is turned into fat reserves
if input is lower than output - lose weight
energy is obtained from fat reserves
53
how do statins reduce risk of CVD
reduce blood cholesterol by reducing the amount of LDL produced in the liver, lower blood cholesterol, reduces atheroma formation therefore reducing risk of CVD
54
What are the risks and side effects of statins
muscle and joint pain, digestive system problems, increased risk of diabetes, nosebleeds and headaches
55
how do anticoagulants reduce risk of CVD
reduce blood clotting so clots are less likely to form at the site of damage in artery walls therefore less chance of an artery being blocked by a blood clot
56
what are the side effects and risks of anticoagulants
any wound can lead to excessive bleeding which can lead to fainting, death
also lead to osteoperosis, tissue swelling and if taken when pregnant, can damage the fetus
57
what can make a study on CVD more reliable and valid
large and representative sample group, a control, repetition and no bias in data collection
58
how do antihypertensives reduce risk of CVD
contain beta blockers which reduce the strength of heart beat
contain vasodilators which widen blood vessels
include diuretics - reduce the amount of sodium reabsorbed by the blood in the kidneys which leads to less water absorbed and therefore less blood volume
all reduce high blood pressure, less chance of damage occurring to artery walls
59
what are the risks and side effects of antihypertensives
palpitations, arrhythmia, fainting, headaches, drowsiness from low bp and allergic reactions
60
what are the lifestyle factors that can increase risk of CVD
diet high in saturated fats and salt, high blood pressure, smoking and inactivity
61
how can smoking increase risk of CVD
CO binds to haemoglobin and reduces the amount of oxygen carried in the blood to reaches important tissues
nicotine increases platelet stickiness which increases risk of blood clot formation
decreases amount of antioxidants in blood - more cell damage in artery wall - atherosclerosis
62
how doe s high blood pressure increase risk of CVD
increases risk of damage to artery walls
63
what are the factors beyond control that increase risk of CVD
genetics
sex
age
64
how can blood clots cause heart attacks
1. cardiac muscle is supplied with blood from coronary arteries
2. blood contains oxygen needed by cardiac muscles to carry out respiration
3. if coronary artery becomes blocked by a blood clot, an area of cardiac muscle won't receive blood and therefore oxygen so it won't be able to carry out respiration
4. causes myocardial infarction + damage/death of heart muscle
65
what is a stroke
rapid loss of brain function due to disruption in blood supply in the brain
66
what is deep vein thrombosis
formation of a blood clot in a vein deep in the body caused by prolonged inactivity and risk increases with age
67
how can effect of caffeine on HR be tested on daphnia
1.Crush up 1 caffeine tablet and place into a beaker with 100ml of distilled water and stir with a glass rod until fully dissolved 0 there should be no residue
2.Repeat step 1 with differing numbers of caffeine tablets in 100ml of water
3.Place a few strands of cotton onto the cavity slide – to immobilise the daphnia.
4.Transfer a daphnia to the cavity using a pipette
5.Using filter paper, remove water from around the daphnia and, using a pipette, place 2 drops of distilled water onto the daphnia
6.Under low power, observe the daphnia and locate its heart
7.Record the number of heartbeats for 15 seconds with a counter, timing with a stopwatch, and record results in a table.
8.Repeat 2-7 at least three times
9.Repeat 3-7 with 2 drops of the made-up solutions in the place of distilled water.
68
what are the 2 main functions of water in living organisms
solvent - substances dissolve in it, most biological reactions take place while dissolved in it
69
what is the chemical structure of water
1 atom of oxygen joined to 2 hydrogen atoms by a pair of shared electrons
70
how does the chemical structure of water give it a dipole nature
the shared negative electrons are pulled towards the oxygen (the oxygen nucleus is more positive) therefore oxygen becomes partially negative while the hydrogens become partially positive
71
why do some believe it is more acceptable to perform experiments on invertebrates
they're much simpler organisms with a much less sophisticated nervous system so they may not feel pain or stress
72
what is the function of semilunar valves in the heart
prevent blood from flowing back into the heart when the ventricles contract
73
how do valves prevent blood from flowing in the opposite direction
they can only open one way
if there's more pressure before a valve, it is forced open
if there is more pressure after, it is forced shut
74
how does the dipole nature of water allow it to form hydrogen bonds
the partially positive hydrogen become attracted to the partially negative oxygens in the other water molecule establishing hydrogen bonds
75
how does the dipole nature of water make it good for transporting substance
- cohesive - H2 bonds between H2O molecules make them very cohesive
- good solvent - dipole nature makes it good for dissolving substances
i.e. ionic - negative ion becomes attracted to the H+ while the positive ion is attracted to the negative oxygen
76
why do multicellular organisms need mass transport systems
all cells need energy and most get it from aerobic respiration
low SA:Vol ration so diffusion isn't fast enough to deliver raw nutrients and materials to cells and to remove waste products
77
what and where are ester bonds is formed
a type of bond formed by a condensation reaction which joins each of the fatty acid tails to the glycerol molecule in triglyceride
78
how and where is glycogen stored
as dense granules in the liver and muscle cells
79
explain why high blood pressure can increase risk of developing CVD
high blood pressure causes damage to the endothelium of the artery
risks an inflammatory response/ build up of cholesterol leads to the formation of an atheroma
plaque develops and narrows the lumen of the artery
80
explain how the diet of a person could affect the development of CVD
high salt intake - increases blood pressure
this then causes damage tot he endothelium of an artery
high intake of saturated fat - high LDL levels are linked to atheroma
81
describe the roles of LDLs in the development of atherosclerosis
LDLs carry cholesterol in the blood
cholesterol is deposited to form an atheroma in the endothelium of an artery
82
explain how atherosclerosis can result in damage to heart muscle
narrows the lumen of coronary arteries
reduces blood flow/oxygen to the cardiac muscle
which reduces aerobic respiration
83
describe the role of thrombin in blood clotting
thrombin is an enzyme
which catalyses the conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin
a mesh of fibrin traps platelets and red blood cells to form a clot
84
explain why the location of a blood clot would affect the oxygen saturation of the blood leaving the right lung
if the blood clot is in the larger artery, it will result in the largest reduction in blood oxygen saturation
because it would result in a reduced blood flow to the lung
this would result in reduced gas exchange therefore fewer red blood cells can be oxygenated
85
explain how a blood clot could form in a vessel
collagen is exposed when a blood vessel is damaged
thromboplastin is released
thromboplastin catalyses conversion of
prothrombin into thrombin
thrombin catalyses conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin
fibrin forms a tangled mesh of fibres and traps red blood cells to form a clot
86
explain how atherosclerosis in 1 part of an artery could increase the likelihood of it developing in the another part of the same artery
plaques/atherosclerosis narrow lumen
increasing blood pressure further
87
explain why platelet inhibitors would reduce the risk of a heart attack
platelet inhibitors reduce the risk of blood clots forming
therefore it's less likely that coronary arteries/blood flow to heart muscle would be blocked
88
explain the role of antihypertensive drugs in reducing atherosclerosis
they lower bp
lower bp reduces risk of damage to the endothelium of the artery
reduced risk of inflammatory response
reduced risk of atheroma/plaque formation
89
state 2 possible side effects of taking antihypertensives
nausea
muscle cramps
dizziness/fainting/hypotension
kidney failure
90
explain why beta blockers are prescribed for some people
they reduce blood pressure and therefore reducing the risk of CVD/heart disease/atherosclerosis
91
describe how high bp could be reduced by medication and lifestyle changes
treatment with antihypertensives
reduce salt intake
stop smoking
increase level of exercise
reduce weight
92
explain the effects of a diet high in salt could have on a person's risk of developing CVD
increases risk of CVD
because it causes higher blood pressure
which increases risk of damage to endothelium of artery
therefore increases risk of inflammatory response
leading to increased risk of atheroma/ plaque formation
narrowing of arteries increases risk of blood clots
93
describe how glucose moves into cells by facilitated diffusion
carrier protein
glucose moves from a high concentration to low concentration
glucose binds to carrier protein/ carrier protein changes shape to move glucose across the membrane
94
explain how the structure of glycogen allows it to be an energy store
polymer of glucose
provides glucose for respiration
branched/contains 1,6 glycosidic bonds for rapid hydrolysis
compact to allow a large amount of energy to be stored in a small space
95
give one structural difference between amylose and amylopectin
amylose is unbranched/ only has 1,4 glycosidic bonds
amylopectin is branched/ has 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds
96
explain how the structures of amylopectin and glycogen make them suitable for storing energy
branched and therefore can be rapidly hydrolysed to release glucose
compact so more energy can be stored
insoluble therefore doesn't affect osmosis
molecules too large to diffuse across a cell membrane
97
explain the effect that large quantities of lipoprotein could have on blood cholesterol
increased blood cholesterol because triglyceride is saturated
lipoproteins are LDLs which transport cholesterol
LDLs transport cholesterol
LDL binds to receptors / LDL accumulates in blood if receptors are overloaded
98
compare and contrast structure of a disaccharide with glycogen
both:
contain C,H and O
contain glycosidic bonds
contain glucose
diff:
- glycogen contain 1,4 and 1,6 bonds
disaccharides only contain 1 type of glycosidic bonds
- glycogen only contain glucose where as disaccharides can contain glucose and other monosaccharides
99
describe how an enzyme could break down polysaccharide components
hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds
100
describe the structure of an unbranched polysaccharide
made up of monosaccharide components joined together via condensation reactions
only 1,4 glycosidic bonds present
101
state what will happen to the additional energy if an individual takes in more energy than is required
stored as glycogen/fat/lipids in body cells
102
explain how high levels of sugars in 1 persons diet could lead to obesity
energy intake higher than energy output
excess sugars/energy can be stored as/converted to fat
leading to weight gain
obesity indicated by a BMI above 30/ waist hip ratio greater than 0.85 in women or 1.0 for men
103
justify how loss of heat when sweating is related to the dipole nature of water
water has an uneven distribution of charge
so water forms hydrogen bonds with other water molecules and it requires a lot of thermal energy to break the bonds
and allow water to evaporate and take the heat energy with it
104
explain how the properties of water make it an ideal transport medium
water is a solvent
water molecules surround the ions and molecules and form hydrogen bonds between the water molecules and the solute molecules
water is a liquid and so has the ability to flow
105
explain why a snake needs a heart
to supply oxygen / glucose to body cells/ to remove CO2 from the body
by mass transport
small SA:Volume ration doesn't allow diffusion to occur at a sufficient rate
106
devise a procedure to compare the effects of decaffeinated coffee and regular coffee on the heart rate of daphnia
use of a microscope
record heartbeat before and after placing in regular/ decaffeinated coffee
control the temperature and species of daphnia
use a control to compare it to
107
explain how a hole in septum allowed a human baby to survive
hole allows oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to mix
oxygenated blood travels to the body/ enters aorta/ deoxygenated blood travels to the lungs/ enters the pulmonary artery
producing some oxygen for respiration
108
explain how pressure difference in the heart ensures efficient pumping of the blood into the arteries
pressure increases in the ventricles
greater pressure than in the atria
causing AV valves to close
causing SL valves to open/forcing blood into arteries
109
what is glycogen
a glucose polysaccharide joined by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds and is branched
is a source and store of energy
110
what bonds form between saccharides
glycosidic bonds
111
define polysaccharide
a carbohydrate whose molecules consist of sugars bonded together
112
what does glycogen being heavily branched mean
that it's compact and doesn't occupy a large amount of space
113
how and where is glycogen stored
as dense granules in the liver and muscle cells
114
how can glucose monomers be removed from a glycogen molecule and when
hydrolysis for respiration
115
where is starch found
in plant cells
116
how is starch formed
when alpha glucose monomers are joined together by glycosidic bonds during a condensation reaction
117
what hydrolyses amylose
amylase
118
what are 3 examples of disaccharides
maltose, sucrose and galactose
119
what is the structure of glycogen
hexose
120
what is the structure of fructose
pentose
121
what monomers make up
a) maltose
b) sucrose
c) lactose
2x alpha glucose
1 alpha glucose and 1 fructose
1 galactose and 1 glucose
122
what is the difference between alpha and beta glucose
in alpha glucose, the OH group is below the ring on carbon 4 but in beta it is above the ring
123
what is the significance of glycosidic bonds
affect the structure of polysaccharide causing them to be branched or unbranched which is relevant in relation to their roles either as an energy store or as a structural unit
124
what is a saturated fatty acid
a type of fatty acid molecule containing only single bonds between carbon atoms
125
what and where are ester bonds are formed
a type of bond formed by a condensation reaction which joins each of the fatty acid tails to the glycerol molecule in a triglyceride
126
Explain how the structure of their lungs enables shrews to get oxygen into the
body rapidly.
many alveoli provide a surface area for gas exchange/ diffusion
alveoli walls are one cell thick
short diffusion pathway for gas exchange
network of capillaries maintain the conc grad
network of capillaries increase surface area for gas exchange
127
A pathogenic strain of this bacterium, E. coli-STEC, produces a toxin that reduces
blood platelet concentration.
Explain how an E.coli-STEC infection increases the time taken for a blood clot
to form.
less thromboplastin
less prothrombin converted to thrombin
less fibrinogen converted to fibrin
fewer platelets trapped in mesh
128
Describe the effect of age and BMI on the development of CHD in women.
increasing age and increasing BMI both increase incidence of CHD in women
129
Explain why many animals need a heart and circulation system
to pump blood around the blood vessel enabling mass transport
therefore overcoming limitations of diffusion
