Topic 1 Flashcards

Question

Describe the stages that lead to the formation of an atheroma

Answer 1

**Endothelial damage**/dysfunction (e.g. caused by smoking or high bp) Leads to an **increased risk of blood clotting** in artery but also an **inflammatory response**. **White blood cells** move into the **artery wall**. **Cholesterol builds up**, leading to the formation of an **atheroma** The **build-up of calcium salts + fibres** leads to **plaque** formation This causes the **narrowing of the artery** + **loss of elasticity** **Blood pressure is raised** (thus increasing risk of endothelial dysfunction!)

Answer 2

A number of (clotting) factors have to be present for a blood clot to be able to form

Answer 3

When **platelets** come into contact with the damaged tissue they **stick together** forming a '**plug**' **Thromboplastin** (a **protein**) is **released** from the damaged tissue + platelets This causes **insoluble prothrombin** in the plasma to be converted into **soluble thrombin** if there are **Ca²⁺ and vit. K** present **Thrombin** triggers the conversion of **soluble fibrinogen** to **insoluble fibrin** which forms a **mesh** trapping more platelets + red blood cells, thus forming a **clot**.

Answer 4

The probability of an unwanted event/outcome occuring

Answer 5

**Involunatary** (e.g. being a passanger in a plane as opposed to driving a car) ## Footnote **Dreaded** **Not natural** **Unfair** **Unfamilliar** **Very small**

Answer 6

Their own experience carries more weight than statistics Inability to assess risks well Peer pressure - e.g. alcohol consumption + smoking when young The idea that if something is destined to happen then its unpreventable (karma...) The remoteness of the likely consequences (e.g. having a stroke is hard to imagine)

Answer 7

**Diet** - correlation between dietart habits + CVD levels. e.g. lipoprotein + salt levels. Could be causal, especially for blood cholesterol levels **Smoking** - chemicals in smoke physically damage artery linings + cause them to constrict **Sex** - oestrogen gives some protection before menopause **Age** - Elasticity + width of arterues decreases with age **Inactivity** - Regular exercise decreases CVD risk by reducing bp + raising HDL levels **Genetics** - can inherit high bp, poor cholesterol metabolism, easily damaged arteries, relative HDL:LDL levels in blood **High blood pressure** - makes damage to endothelium + atherosclerosis more likely

Answer 8

That a change in one varible is accompanied by/corresponds to a change in another Doesn't mean there is a causation

Answer 9

When the change in one variable causes the change of another If this is the case the variable are said to be causally linked

Answer 10

A scientist who carries out research on patterns of disease/health risks in populations to determine what the risk factors are Also establish whether there are any correlations in data sets + if there might be a causation as well

Answer 11

Cohort studies Case-control studies

Answer 12

Follow a **large number of people** over an **extended period of time** Subjects are **monitored** to see if they **develop the condition** Cohort then **divided into groups** - those with + without condition Subjects **interviewed** to **assess their risk factors** **Correlation** between **risk factors + development of condition** looked for

Answer 13

A **group with the condition** (cases) is **compared to a group without** it (control) **Past histories** of the two groups are **investigated** The study will **only have validity** if the **two groups are matched for other factors** such as age and sex

Answer 14

**Variables should be controlled when selecting cohorts/control groups** to ensure validity + reliability. This is difficult because humans are very variable... **Measurement techniques**/questions must be **standardised** **Sample size** is important - for many diseases only a small % of population is affected, so a large sample size might only contain a small no. individuals with condition The **studied sample should be representative** of the whole population to avoid bias

Answer 15

The amount of energy a person requires (to carry out bodily functions) compared to the energy they consume through their diet

Answer 16

Basal metabolic rate The minimum daily energy required for basic bodily functions e.g. beating of the heart Measured irrespective of physical activity

Answer 17

Sex Age Body mass

Answer 18

Weight loss Or weight gain which could lead to obesity

Answer 19

C_x(H₂O)_n

Answer 20

The individual sugar units that make up carbohydrates

Answer 21

One sugar (saccharide) unit

Answer 22

2 sugar (saccharide) units

Answer 23

Many sugar (saccharide) units | (i.e. more than 2)

Answer 24

Is a **hexose** sugar as it contains 6 carbons Is a **monosaccharide** Has the formula **C₆H₁₂O₆** Is nearly always in the form of a **ring** Has 2 forms - **α-glucose** (in picture) and β-glucose

Answer 25

Is the **source of the most readily available energy from respiration** in living things Its **solubility in water** helps it fulfil this role as it can **easily be carried to where it is needed** It's also a **relatively small** molecule makes it **easier to move into cells**

Answer 26

Maltose Sucrose Lactose

Answer 27

Is a **hexose** sugar as it contains 6 carbons Has the formula **C₆H₁₂O₆** Has **almost the same structure of glucose** except the -H and -OH on the 5th carbon are swapped (as shown in pic)

Answer 28

Is a **hexose** sugar as it contains 6 carbons (2 not in ring)

Answer 29

2 α-glucose molecules Joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds

Answer 30

An α-glucose molecule and a fructose molecule

Answer 31

β-glucose and galactose Joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds as glucose is in β form

Answer 32

By a **condensation reaction** between **2 monosaccharides** Results in a **water** molecule being **produced** Forms a **glycosidic bond** Bond named depending on which carbons the bonds formed between e.g. 1,4

Answer 33

Split by a **hydrolysis reaction** where a **water molecule is added** The glycosidic bond is broken The 2 monosaccharides are reformed

Answer 34

Branched or unbranched

Answer 35

A mixture of the polysaccharides amylose and amylopectin Found in plants

Answer 36

'Animal starch' Polysaccharide found in animals How monosaccharides (e.g. glucose) are stored for later use as energy for respiration

Answer 37

Is a straight chain (**unbranched**) **polysaccharide** Made of **α-glucose monomers** joined with **α 1,4 glycosidic bonds** Straight chain **coils** up due to **hydrogen bonding**

Answer 38

A **branched polysaccharide** Made of **α-glucose monomers** Monomers joined by **both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds** The **1,6** glycosidic bonds cause it to be **branched**

Answer 39

A **branched polysaccaride** **Structure** very **similar to amylopectin** but with **more frequent branches** Formed from **α-glucose monomers** Monomers joined by **both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds** **1,6** glycosidic bonds cause **branching** Has **more 1,6, glycosidic bonds than amylopectin** hence **more branched**

Answer 40

**Enzymes catalyse a hydrolysis reaction** This causes **monosaccharides** to be formed again

Answer 41

Its **coiled** shape (due to the presence of **amylose**) makes it **compact** so it **can store lots of glucose monomers**, and thus energy, in a **small space** It is **insoluble** so **doesn't affect** the **osmotic potential of cells** Amylopectin is more easily broken down than amylose due to the fact it has more branches and thus more terminal ends. The **difference in breakdown speed** gives a **mix of slow- and fast- glucose/energy release**

Answer 42

Lots of **branches** (more than amylopectin) means **more terminal ends**. Therefore can **release glucose even faster**. Allows **quick supply of energy needed in animals**

Answer 43

Contain **3 fatty acids** joined to a **glycerol** molecule by an **ester bond** The formation of the ester bond is a **condensation reaction** The **glycerol** molecule **loses 1 H** and each **fatty acid loses an -OH**. So 3 H₂O molecules formed in total Triglycerides have a **hydrophobic tail** and a **hydrophilic head**

Answer 44

They are all hydrophobic

Answer 45

May be **different lengths** Fatty acids can be **unsaturated or saturated**

Answer 46

Contain 3 fatty acids that are different from each other

Answer 47

To store energy To act as waterproofing + insulating agents Can be used to form triglycerides

Answer 48

**Membranes** containing **unsaturated** fatty acids are **more fluid** Unsaturated fatty acids have **lower melting/boiling points** and are generally **more flexible** This is because they have a **kink at each double bond**

Answer 49

Is an essential component of **cell membranes** where it affects their **fluidity**

Answer 50

By proteins in complexes called lipoproteins There are 2 types: Low density and high density

Answer 51

Formed from **saturated fats, protein, and cholesterol** **Binds to cell surface receptors** which can become **saturated**, leaving **LDLs in the blood** Associated with the development of **atherosclerosis** Should be maintained at a **low level**

Answer 52

Formed from **unsaturated fats, protein, and cholesterol** **Transports cholesterol** from body **tissues** to the **liver** where it is **broken down** **Reduces blood cholesterol levels** hence **discourages** the development of **atherosclerosis** Should be maintained at a **high level**

Answer 53

A **high cholesterol diet** leads **higher blood choleserol levels** This could cause an **increase in LDLs in the blood**, meaning **choleserol is harder to remove** There may be **too much cholesterol for HDLs in the blood to quickly remove** Hence the higher blood cholesterol levels resulting lead to the **formation of more plaques in the endothelium of arteries**

Answer 54

**Stop smoking** Maintain resting **blood pressure** below 140/90mm Hg Maintain **low blood cholesterol** levels **Maintain a normal BMI**/low wait-to-hip ratio Take regular physical **exercise** Moderate/no **consumption of alcohol** **Reduce stress**

Answer 55

**Reduce saturated fat** intake (reduces total cholesterol but LDL:HDL more) Consume **more polyunsaturated fats** (reduced LDL:HDL) **Reduce salt** (lowers fluid levels in blood so reduces blood pressure) Eat **more fruit + veg** (antioxidants + non-starch carbs lower blood cholesterol) Eat **more oily fish** (linked to slight reduction in blood pressure + risk of clotting) Eat more non-starch polysaccharides

Answer 56

An **antioxidant** Hence it's a **reducing agent**

Answer 57

Neutralise free radicals which damage cells

Answer 58

Heat treatment

Answer 59

**Diuretics** (antihypertensive) **Calcium channel blockers** (antihypertensive) **A**ngiotensin **C**onverting **E**nzyme **inhibitors** (antihypertensive) **Statins** **Anticoagulants** e.g. warfarin **Platelet inhibitory drugs** e.g. aspirin, clopidogrel

Answer 60

Increase the volume of **urine** This **lowers blood volume** and hence **blood pressure** Very **occasional dizziness**, **nausea**, muscle **cramps**

Answer 61

**Disrupts calcium ion movement** through calcium channels in the cell membrane. This **reduces muscle contaction**, so **increases the diameter of arteries**. Also **reduces** the **force + frequency of heart beats**. Hence **lowers blood pressure** **Heaches**, **dizziness**, **swollen ankles**, **constipation**, **flushing** of face

Answer 62

**Blocks** the **producition of ACE**. This **reduces arterial constriction** so **lowers blood pressure** **Cough**, **dizziness**, **abnormal heart rhythm**, **impaired kidney function**

Answer 63

**Inhibit an enzym**e in the **liver** that **produces LDL** cholesterol **Tiredness**, **disturbed sleep**, **nausea**, **diarrhoea**, **headache**, **mucle weakness** People may depend wholly on statins + **not change their diet/lifestyle**

Answer 64

**Reduce** risk of **clot formation** **Risk of uncontrolled bleeding** Dosage control is essential

Answer 65

Make **platelets less sticky** * *Aspirin irritates stomach lining** + can cause **bleeding** * *Clopidogrel** with aspirin **increases** this **risk**

Answer 66

**Can't give consent** **No way of knowing** if they're in **pain** or not (or if they feel pain like we do) **Don't use pregnant** Daphnia to reduce harm/potential death **Minimise time spent on microscope slide** as heat from lamp can kill them **Only use once to reduce exposure** (to caffeine solution) and thus harm **Keep in cool water** to prevent overheating/death

Topic 1 Flashcards

(92 cards)