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Healthcare Values and Ethics > Topic 1: Ethical Theories, Principles, and Standards - Ch 1 Intro to Ethics > Flashcards

Topic 1: Ethical Theories, Principles, and Standards - Ch 1 Intro to Ethics Flashcards

1
Q

What are the four basic principles of healthcare ethics?

A

Beneficence
Nonmaleficence
Autonomy
Justice

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2
Q

What is “ethics”?

A

the branch of philosophy that seeks to understand the nature, purposes, justification, and founding principles of moral rules and the systems they comprise

deals with values relating to human conduct

focuses on the rightness and wrongness of actions, as well as the goodness and badness of motives and ends

encompasses the decision-making process of determining ultimate actions—that is, answering the questions What should I do? and Is it the right thing to do?

is concerned with human conduct as it ought to be, as opposed to what it actually is

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3
Q

Microethics

A

involves an individual’s view of what is right and wrong based on one’s personal life teachings, traditions, and experiences.

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4
Q

Macroethics

A

involves a more global view of right and wrong.

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5
Q

What are the 3 distinct ways ethics are used?

A
  1. philosophical ethics - involves inquiry about ways of life and rules of conduct
  2. general pattern or way of life - such as religious ethics
  3. set of rules - conduct or “moral code” (e.g., professional codes for ethical behavior)
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6
Q

Bioethics

A

addresses a diversity of issues that include the nature of life and death, what sort of life is worth living, how we distinguish between assisted suicide and murder, how we should treat people who are especially vulnerable, and the responsibilities that we have toward other human beings

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7
Q

Morality

A

a class of rules held by society to govern the conduct of its individual members

is a code of conduct

requires us to reach a decision as to the rightness or wrongness of an action

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8
Q

Morals

A

ideas about what is right and what is wrong

are deeply ingrained in culture and religion and are often part of its identity

should not be confused with religious or cultural habits or customs

That which is considered morally right can vary from nation to nation, culture to culture, and religion to religion.

There is no universal morality that is recognized by all people in all cultures at all times

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9
Q

code of conduct

A

prescribes standards of conduct, states principles expressing responsibilities, and defines the rules expressing duties of professionals to whom they apply

Wikipedia describes a code of conduct as a “set of rules outlining the social norms, religious rules and responsibilities of, and or proper practices for, an individual, party or organization. Related concepts include ethical, honor, moral codes and religious laws.”

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10
Q

Standards

A

e.g., honesty, respect for others, conscientiousness - are used to guide human conduct by stating desirable traits to be exhibited and undesirable ones (dishonesty, deceitfulness, self-interest) to be avoided

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11
Q

Principles

A

responsibilities that do not specify what the required conduct should be.

Professionals need to make a judgment about what is desirable in a particular situation based on accepted principles.

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12
Q

Rules

A

specify specific conduct; they do not allow for individual professional judgment.

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13
Q

Moral judgments

A

those judgments concerned with what an individual or group believes to be the right or proper behavior in a given situation.

Making a moral judgment is being able to select an option from among choices.

A lack of conformity can result in moral disapproval and possibly ridicule or censure of one’s character.

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14
Q

Laws

A

created to set boundaries for societal behavior.

They are enforced to ensure that the expected behavior happens.

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15
Q

Can morality be legislated?

A

Yes.

You can’t not legislate morality.

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16
Q

Moral dilemmas

A

often arise when values, rights, duties, and loyalties conflict

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17
Q

theories and principles of ethics

A

introduce order into the way people think about life

They are the foundations of ethical analysis that provide guidance in the decision-making process.

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18
Q

Ethical theories

A

help caregivers determine the outcome of alternative choices, when following their duties to others, in order to reach the best ethical decision under the circumstances.

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19
Q

Meta-Ethics

A

the study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts

seeks to understand ethical terms and theories and their application

attempts to discover the origin or cause of right and wrong

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20
Q

Normative Ethics

A

prescriptive in that it attempts to determine what moral standards should be followed so that human behavior and conduct may be morally right.

primarily concerned with establishing standards or norms for conduct and is commonly associated with investigating how one ought to act.

One of the central questions of modern normative ethics is whether human actions are to be judged right or wrong solely according to their consequences.

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21
Q

Descriptive Ethics

A

also known as comparative ethics

is the study of what people believe to be right and wrong and why they believe it.

describes how people act

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22
Q

Difference between normative and descriptive ethics?

A

Normative prescribes how people ought to act, vs descriptive describes how they DO act.

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23
Q

Applied Ethics

A

the philosophical search (within western philosophy) for right and wrong within controversial scenarios

the application of normative theories to practical moral problems, such as abortion, euthanasia, and assisted suicide

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24
Q

Consequential Ethics

A

emphasizes that the morally right action is whatever action leads to the maximum balance of good over evil.

theories that judge actions by their consequences

Revolve around the premise that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the consequences or effects of an action.

based on the view that the value of an action derives solely from the value of its consequences

goal of a consequentialist is to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number

ends justify the means

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25
Q

Utilitarian Ethics

A

involves the concept that the moral worth of an action is determined solely by its contribution to overall usefulness

commonly holds that the proper course of an action is one that maximizes utility, commonly defined as maximizing happiness and reducing suffering

describes doing the greatest good for the greatest number of people

form of consequential ethics - moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome, and, thus, the ends justify the means

26
Q

Deontological Ethics

A

“doing your duty.”

commonly attributed to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. He believed that although doing the right thing is good, it might not always lead to or increase the good and right thing sought after

focuses on one’s duties to others and others’ rights

includes telling the truth and keeping your promises

often referred to as duty-based ethics

involves ethical analysis according to a moral code or rules, religious or secular

Deon is derived from the Greek word meaning “duty.”

heavy on obligation, in the sense that a person who follows this ethical paradigm believes that the highest virtue comes from doing what you are supposed to do

27
Q

Nonconsequential Ethics

A

denies that the consequences of an action are the only criteria for determining the morality of an action

the rightness or wrongness of an action is based on properties intrinsic to the action, not on its consequences

believes right or wrong depends on the intention, not the outcome

good intentions

They accept the fact that sometimes good intentions can lead to bad outcomes.

Focus more on character as to whether someone is a good person or not

28
Q

Ethical Relativism

A

morality is relative to the norms of the culture where one lives

right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced

A particular action by an individual may be morally right in one society or culture and wrong in another

29
Q

Ethical principles

A

universal rules of conduct, derived from ethical theories that provide a practical basis for identifying what kinds of actions, intentions, and motives are valued

assist caregivers in making choices based on moral principles that have been identified as standards considered meaningful when addressing health care

30
Q

Autonomy

A

involves recognizing the right of a person to make one’s own decisions

is not an absolute principle

actions of one person must not infringe upon the rights of another

31
Q

Are their laws related to autonomy?

A

Yes, Respect for autonomy has been recognized in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States.

The law upholds an individual’s right to make healthcare decisions

Patients can refuse treatment, refuse to take medications, and refuse invasive procedures regardless of the benefits that may be derived from them.

They have a right to have their decisions adhered to by family members who may disagree simply because they are unable to let go.

32
Q

What can affect a persons ability to make autonomous decisions?

A

one’s disabilities, mental status, maturity, or incapacity to make decisions

33
Q

What can help in cases where a person is unable to make an autonomous decision?

A

one’s autonomous wishes may be carried out through an advance directive and/or an appointed healthcare agent

34
Q

Beneficence

A

the principle of doing good, demonstrating kindness, showing compassion, and helping others

In the healthcare setting, caregivers demonstrate beneficence by providing benefits and balancing benefits against risks

requires one to do good

35
Q

Paternalism

A

a form of beneficence

People sometimes believe that they know what is best for another and make decisions that they believe are in that person’s best interests

may involve withholding information

can occur because of one’s age, cognitive ability, and level of dependency

36
Q

Can paternalism violate a patient’s rights to self-determination?

A

Yes, A patient’s rights to self-determination are compromised when a third party imposes their wishes upon those of another person.

37
Q

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services Memorandum - CPR Policies

A

Memorandum Summary:
1. Must provide CPR to patients who have cardiac arrest in accordance to their advance directives or in the absence of advance directives or a Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) order. CPR-certified staff must be available at all times.

  1. Facilities must not establish and implement facility-wide no-CPR policies.
  2. Surveyor Implications - Surveyors should ascertain that facility policies related to emergency response require staff to initiate CPR as appropriate and that records do not reflect instances where CPR was not initiated by staff even though the resident requested CPR or had not formulated advance directives
38
Q

Medical paternalism

A

involves physicians unwittingly making decisions for patients who are capable of making their own choices

can influence a patient’s healthcare decision simply by selectively telling the patient what he or she prefers based on personal beliefs

This directly violates patient autonomy

39
Q

Employment-related paternalism

A

at it’s best - a shared and cooperative style of management in which the employer recognizes and considers employee rights when making decisions in the workplace

at it’s worst - occurs when the employer’s style of management becomes more authoritarian, sometimes arbitrary, and unpredictable

40
Q

Are there laws that protect employees decisions related to employment paternalism?

A

Yes!

Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the courts and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) reject such paternalism, demanding that the applicant alone decide whether to pursue (and accept) a job that poses risks related to his or her sex, race, color, religion, or national origin.

41
Q

Nonmaleficence

A

an ethical principle that requires caregivers to avoid causing patients harm

“first, do no harm.”

Physicians today still swear by the code of Hippocrates, pledging to do no harm.

42
Q

Can telling the truth cause harm?

A

yes.

43
Q

What is the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment?

A

designed to analyze the natural progression of untreated syphilis in African American men

participants were not warned during the study that penicillin was available as the cure for syphilis

They believed that they were receiving adequate care and unknowingly suffered unnecessarily

44
Q

Was the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment morally or ethically right or wrong? Why?

A

Yes, to both. Nonmaleficence requires a person to do no harm. This study purposefully withheld information causing harm to the subjects.

45
Q

Is letting a patient die the same as killing them?

A

No. Killing a patient is never justified, whereas letting a patient die by removing respirators (for example) can be right.

46
Q

Justice

A

the obligation to be fair in the distribution of benefits and risks

demands that persons in similar circumstances be treated similarly

Justice involves how people are treated when their interests compete with one another

47
Q

When is a person considered to be treated justly?

A

A person is treated justly when he or she receives what is due, is deserved, or can legitimately be claimed.

48
Q

Distributive justice

A

a principle requiring that all persons be treated equally and fairly

49
Q

What is a common issue with providing justice related to healthcare?

A

There are not enough funds to go around. This causes less funding for diseases that are less common.

50
Q

Virtue ethics

A

focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on the specific actions he or she performs

51
Q

A virtue

A

is a positive trait of moral excellence.

are those characteristics that differentiate good people from bad people.

such as courage, honesty, and justice

52
Q

What is a morally virtuous person?

A

one who does the good and right thing by habit, not merely based on a set of rules of conduct

53
Q

Values

A

standards of conduct

used for judging the goodness or badness of some action

are rooted in customs and habits of a culture

the standards by which we measure the goodness in our lives.

54
Q

moral value

A

the relative worth placed on some virtuous behavior

55
Q

Intrinsic value

A

something that has value in and of itself (e.g., happiness)

56
Q

Instrumental value

A

something that helps to give value to something else (e.g., money is valuable for what it can buy)

57
Q

Can values change?

A

Yes. As needs change a persons values may change.

58
Q

What are abstract virtues?

A

a persons principals.

59
Q

Are virtues and values used interchangeably in healthcare?

A

yes.

60
Q

Pillars of Moral Strength

A

describes a virtuous person

Courage
Wisdom
Temperance
Commitment
Compassion
Conscientiousness
Discernment
Fairness
Fidelity
Freedom
Honesty
Integrity
Kindness
Respect
Hopefulness
Tolerance

Healthcare Values and Ethics (1 decks)

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