Topic 2 - Childhood

Question 1

What is meant by sociologists see childhood as socially constructed ?

Answer 1

-sociologists see childhood as socially constructed , as something created and defined by society
-they argue that by what people mean by childhood , and the position that children occupy in society , isn’t fixed but differs between times , place and culture
-we can see this by comparing the western idea of childhood today with childhood in the past and in other societies

Question 2

How and why is it generally accepted that children in our society are fundamentally different from adults ?

Answer 2

-It is generally accepted in our society today , that childhood is a special time of life and that children are fundamentally different from adults.
-they are regarded as physically and psychologically immature and not yet competent to run their lives
-there is a belief that children lack the skills , knowledge and experience meaning that they need a lengthy , protected period of nurturing and socialisation before they are ready for adult society and its responsibilities

Question 3

What does Pilcher notes is the most important feature of the modern idea of childhood and what does he mean by this ?

Answer 3

-Pilcher notes that the most important feature of the modern idea of childhood is separateness
-childhood is seen as a clear and distinct life stage , and children in our society occupy a separate status from adults

Question 4

What are several ways that pilchers idea of the modern idea of childhood separateness is emphasised ?

Answer 4

-this is emphasised in several ways
-for example through laws regulating what children are allowed , required or forbidden to do
-their differences from adults is also emphasised through differences in dress . Especially for younger children , and through products and services for children , such as toys , foods , books , entertainment , play areas and so on

Question 5

Linking to the separateness of children’s status , what is childhood also referred to and what does this mean ?

Answer 5

-related to the separateness of children’s status is the idea of childhood as a golden age of happiness and innocence.
-however , this innocence means that children are seen as vulnerable and In need of protection from the dangers of the adult world and so they must be kept “quarantined” and separate from it
-as a result , children’s lives are lived largely in the sphere of the family and education , where adults provide from them and protect them from the outside world
-similarly unlike adults , children lead lives of leisure and play and are largely excluded from paid work

Question 6

Evaluation of childhood as a separate age status - what did Wagg find about the status of children ?

Answer 6

-the view of childhood as a separate age status is not found in all societies and so is not universal
-as Wagg puts it childhood is socially constructed , so what members of particular societies and particular times and in particular places say it is . There is no single universal childhood experienced by all , so childhood isn’t natural and should be distinguished from mere biological immaturity
-this means that , while all humans go through the same stages of physical development , different cultures construct or define this process differently

Question 7

What approach should we take to look at the social construction of childhood and what does this mean ?

Answer 7

-we should take a comparative approach - that is , look at how children are seen and treated in other places and times compared to our own

Question 8

What are the 3 ways that Benedict argues that in simpler , non industrial societies children are treated differently ?

Answer 8

-they take responsibility at an early age
-less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority
-children’s sexual behaviour is often viewed differently

Question 9

Cross cultural differences in childhood - what did punch’s study show about how children take responsibility at an early age ?

Answer 9

-they take a responsibility at an early age - for example , punch’s study of childhood in rural Bolivia found that once children were about 5 years old they are expected to take work responsibilities in the home and the community

Question 10

Cross cultural differences of childhood - what did Firths study show about how less value is placed on children showing obedience to adults ?

Answer 10

-less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority - for example , firth found that among the Tikopia of the western pacific , doing as you’re told by a grown up is regarded as a concession to be granted by the child , and not a right to be expected by the adult

Question 11

Cross cultural differences of childhood - what did Malinowskis study show about how children’s sexual behaviour is often viewed differently ?

Answer 11

-children’s sexual behavuour is often viewed differently -for example , among the Trobriand islanders of the south -west pacific , Malinowski found that adults took an attitude of “tolerance and amused interest” towards children’s sexual explorations and activities

Question 12

What does Benedict believe these 3 differences between societies mean ?

Answer 12

-Benedict argues that this shows that childhood isn’t a fixed thing found universally in the same form in all human societies , but is socially constructed and so differs from culture to culture

Question 13

The globalisation of western childhood - how do sociologists argue the western idea of childhood is being globalised ?

Answer 13

-some sociologists argue that the western notions of childhood are being globalised
-international humanitarian and welfare agencies have exported and imposed what the western norms of childhood should be - a separate life stage , based in the nuclear family and school in which children are innocent , dependent and vulnerable and have no economic role

Question 14

The globalisation of western childhood - what is happening in other countries which shows the western idea of childhood is being spread but how can this also be criticised for children in developing countries ?

Answer 14

-campaigns about child labour or concerns about street children in developing countries , reflects western views about how childhood “ought” to be which shows the western idea of childhood is spreading throughout the world
-however , arguably such campaigns have little impact on the position of children in developing countries

Question 15

What is meant by the historical differences in childhood ?

Answer 15

-the position of children differs over time as well as between societies ,

Question 16

Historical differnces in childhood - what does Aries’s study find about the historical differences in childhood ?

Answer 16

-the historian Aries argues that in the Middle Ages (10th to 13th century) the idea of childhood didn’t exist
-children weren’t seen as having a different nature or needs from adults - at least once they had passed the stage of physical dependency during infancy
-in the Middle Ages , childhood as a separate age stage was short , soon after being weaned , the child entered wider society on much the same as an adult , beginning work from an early age , often in the household of another family
-children were in effect “mini adults” with the same rights ,duties and skills as adults , for example the law made no distinction between children and adults and children often faced the same severe punishments and those meted out to adults
-as evidence of his view , Aries used work of art from the period , in these children would appear without “any of the characteristics of childhood” they were simply depicted on a smaller scale , the paintings showed children and adults dressed in the same clothing , working and playing together

Question 17

Historical differences in childhood - how did Shorters evidence show that parental attitudes towards children in the Middle Ages were very different from those today ?

Answer 17

-shorter argues that high death rates encouraged neglect towards infants
- for example , it wasn’t uncommon for parent to give a newborn baby the name of a recently dead sibling , to refer to the baby as “it” or to forget how many children they had had

Question 18

The modern cult of childhood - what are the 3 elements that Aries points to that show that the notion of childhood gradually began to emerge from the 13th century onwards and what does he see the 20th century as ?

Answer 18

-Schools (which previously adults had also attended) came to specialise purely in the education of the young , this reflected the influence of the church , which increasingly saw children as fragile “Creatures of God” in need of discipline and protection from worldly evils
-there was a growing distinction between children’s and adults clothing , by the 17th century an upper class boy would be dressed in an outfit reserved for his own age group , which set him apart from adults
-by the 18th century , handbooks on child rearing were widely available - a sign of the growing child centredness of family life
According to these developments they culminate a modern cult of childhood , he argues that we have moved from a world that didn’t see childhood in any way as special to a world that is obsessed with childhood , he describes the 20th century as the century of the child

Question 19

Evaluation of Aries - how does Pollack criticise Aries ?

Answer 19

-Criticised him for saying that childhood didn’t exist in the past
-for example , Pollock argues that is more correct to say that in the Middle Ages , society had a different notion of childhood from today

Question 20

Evaluation of Aries - how do some praise Aries ?

Answer 20

-Aries work is valuable because it shows that childhood is socially constructed , he demonstrates how ideas about children and their social status have varied over time

Question 21

What are some reasons for the changes in the position of children ?

Answer 21

-laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work
-the introduction of compulsory schooling
-child protection and welfare legislation
-the growth of the idea of children’s rights
-declining family size and lower infant mortality rates
-children’s development became the subject of medial knowledge
-laws and policies that apply specifically to children

Question 22

Reasons for changes in the position of children - laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work ?

Answer 22

-laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work - from being economic assets who could earn a wage , children become an economic liability , financially dependent on their parents

Question 23

Reason fore the changes in the position of children - the introduction of compulsory schooling ?

Answer 23

-the introduction of compulsory schooling - had a bigger impact on the poor as middle upper class children were already receiving education , the raising of the school leaving age has extended this period of dependency

Question 24

Reason for the changes in the position of children - child protection and welfare legislation ?

Answer 24

-child protection and welfare legislation such as the 1889 prevention of cruelty to children act , exactly a century later the 1989 children act made the welfare of the child the fundamental principle underpinning the work of agencies such as social services

Question 25

Reasons for the changes in position of children - the growth of the idea of children’s rights , Refer to the children act and the united convention on the rights of the child ?

Answer 25

-the growth of the idea of children’s rights - for example the children act, defines parents as having responsibilities rather than rights in relation to children -while the United Nations convention on the rights of the child - lay down basic rights such as the entitlement to healthcare and eduction , protection from abuse and the right to participate in decisions that affect them , such as custody cases

Question 26

Reasons for the changes in the position of children - declining family size and lower infant mortality ?

Answer 26

-declining family size and lower infant mortality’s rates have encouraged parents to make a greater financial and emotional investment in the fewer children which they now have

Question 27

Reasons for the changes in the position of children - children’s development has became the subject of medical knowledge - what did Donzelot find ?

Answer 27

-children’s development has became the subject of medical knowledge - for example , Donzelot observes how theories of child development that began to appear from the 19th century stressed that children need supervision and protection

Question 28

Reason for changes in the position of children - laws and policies that apply specifically to children ?

Answer 28

-laws and policies that apply specifically to children act- such as minimum ages for a wide range of activities from sex to smoking , have reinforced the idea that children are different from adults and so different rules must be applied to their behaviour

Question 29

Reasons for the changes in the position of children - industrialisation ?

Answer 29

-industrialisation - many sociologists argue that the process of industrialisation - the shift from agriculture to factory production - underlines many of the other changes -for example , modern industry needs an educated workforce and this requires compulsory schooling of the young -similarly , the higher standards of living and better welfare provision make it possible to lower infant mortality rates -industrialisation is thus a key factor in brining about the modern idea of childhood and the changed status of children

Question 30

What does Postman believe is happening to childhood , and what trend does he point to ?

Answer 30

-Postman agues that childhood is “disappearing at a dazzling speed” -he points to the trend towards giving children the same rights as adults , the disappearance of children’s traditional unsupervised games , the growing similarity of children and adults clothing and even to cases of children committing “adult” crimes such as murder

Question 31

What does Postman point to that was the first cause of the emergence of childhood and now it’s disappearance ?

Answer 31

-in postman’s view , the cause first of the emergence of childhood and now its disappearance , lies in the rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture

Question 32

What is meant by an information hierarchy created by printed word ?

Answer 32

-information hierarchy - a sharp division between adults who can read and children who cannot

Question 33

Why does Postman argue that mass literacy caused childhood to emerge as a separate status ?

Answer 33

-postman argues that childhood emerged as a separate age status along with mass literacy , from the 19th century because printed word creates an information hierarchy - a sharp division between adults who can read and children who cannot -this gave adults the power to keep knowledge about sex , money , violence , illness , death and other “adult” matters a secret from children -these things become mysteries to them , and childhood came to be associated with innocence and ignorance

Question 34

How does postman argue that the television culture blurs the distinction between childhood and adulthood ?

Answer 34

-the television culture blurs the distinction between childhood and adulthood by destroying the information hierarchy -unlike the printed word , Tv doesn’t require special skills to access it, and it makes information available to adults and children alike -the boundary between adult and child is broken down , adult authority diminishes and the ignorance and innocence of childhood is replaced by knowledge and cynicism (self interest )

Question 35

Evaluation of postman (disappearance of childhood ) - by Opie , what did her study find ?

Answer 35

-Opie argues that childhood isn’t disappearing -based on a lifetime of research into children’s unsupervised games , rhymes and songs conducted with her husband , she argues that there is strong evidence of the continued existence of a separate children’s culture

Question 36

Evaluation of postman - how his research is useful ?

Answer 36

-postman’s study is valuable in showing how differently types of communication technology , such as print and television can influence the way in which childhood is constructed

Question 37

Evaluation of Postman - criticism of his work ?

Answer 37

-postman has been criticised for over emphasising a single cause - television at the expense of other factors that have influenced the development of childhood

Question 38

Childhood in post modernity - Jenks disagrees with postman’s view that childhood is disappearing what do they argue ?

Answer 38

-unlike Postman , Jenks doesn’t believe that childhood is disappearing but believes childhood is changing

Question 39

Childhood in post modernity - what does Jenks believe that the modern society was concerned with and what is childhood seen as ?

Answer 39

-Jenks , sees modern society as being concerned with “futurity” and childhood is seen as a preparation for the individual to become a productive adult in the future -to achieve this the vulnerable , undeveloped child needed to be nurtured ,protected and controlled especially by the child centred family and the education system , which imposed discipline and conformity to children

Question 40

Childhood in post modernity - how does Jenks argue that childhood is undergoing a change from a modern to a post modernity society (focus on relationships) and so shows childhood isn’t disappearing but changing?

Answer 40

-in modern society , adults’ relationships were more stable , but in postmodern society , the pace of change speeds up and relationships become more unstable , for example divorce becomes more common -this generates feelings of insecurity , in this context , relationships with their children become more important as a source of the adult’s identity and stability , while a marriage may end up in divorce , you are still the parent of your child -in postmodern society , relationships with their children thus become adults last refuge from the constant uncertainty and upheaval of life . As a result , adults become even more fearful for their children’s security and even more preoccupied with protecting them from perceived dangers such as child abuse

Question 41

Evaluation of Jenks - strengths of her research ?

Answer 41

-there is some evidence that parents see their relationships with their children as more important than that with their partners and that parents are very concerned about the risks they believe their children face

Question 42

Evaluation of Jenks - weaknesses of his research ?

Answer 42

-her evidence comes from small , unrepresentative studies -Jenks is guiltily of over generalising . Despite the greater diversity of family and childhood patterns found today , such as lone parent families , stepfamilies etc , he makes rather sweeping statements that imply that all children are in the same position

Question 43

What does the march of progress view argue about if the position of children has improved ?

Answer 43

-the march of progress view argues that over the past few centuries , the position of children in western society has been steadily improving and today it is better than it has ever been

Question 44

Who are the 2 main march of progress sociologists and what do they argue about if the position of childhood has improved ?

Answer 44

-Aries and shorter -they argue that children in todays society are better valued , better cared for , protected and educated and enjoy better health and have more rights than those of previous generations -for example , children today are protected from harm and exploitation by laws against child labour and child abuse . We have a array of professionals who cater for children’s educational , psychological and medical needs and the government spends huge sums on their education -better health care and higher standards of living also means that babies have much better chances of survival compared to a century ago

Question 45

How do the march of progress sociologists argue that the family has become child centred and also society ?

Answer 45

-march of progress sociologists argue that the family has become child centred -children are no longer to be “seen and not heard” , as they were in the Victorian times -instead children are now the focal point in a family , consulted on many decisions as never before -parents invest a great deal in their children emotionally as well as financially and often have high aspirations for them to have a better life and greater opportunities than they had themselves -its not just the family that is now child centred , so is society as a whole . For example , much media output and many leisure activities are designed specially for children

Question 46

What does Palmer argue children are experiencing which conflicts with the march of progress view that the position of children is improving ?

Answer 46

-Palmer argues that children argues children in the UK experiencing a “toxic childhood”

Question 47

Why does Palmer argue that children are experiencing a toxic childhood ?

Answer 47

-palmer argues that rapid technological and cultural changes in the past 25 years have damaged children’s physical , emotional and intellectual development , these changes range from junk food , computer games , and intensive marketing to children , to long hours worked by parents ad the growing emphasis on testing in education

Question 48

What is evidence to support palmers view that UK children are experiencing a toxic childhood (include international league tables and UNICEF survey ) ?

Answer 48

-concerns have also been expressed about young peoples health and behaviour -for example , UK youth have above average rates in international league tables for obesity , self harm , drug and alcohol abuse , violence , early sexual experience and teenage pregnancies -a UNICEF survey in 2013 ranked the UK 16th out of 29 for children’s wellbeing

Question 50

What is meant by a conflict view ?

Answer 50

-conflict views argue that society is based on a conflict between different social groups such as social classes or genders -in this conflict , some groups have more power , status or wealth than other

Question 51

How do conflict view sociologists criticise the march of progress view on their view of the modern childhood on 2 grounds ?

Answer 51

Conflict view sociologists criticise the march of progress view on 2 grounds ; -there are inequalities among children in terms of the opportunities and risks they face , many today remain unprotected and badly cared for -the inequalities between children and adults are greater than ever , children today experience greater control , oppression and dependency not greater care and protection

Question 52

The conflict view - inequalities among children - what gender inequalities does Hillman point to ?

Answer 52

-Hillman states gender differences such as boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on the roads , use buses or go out after dark unaccompanied

Question 53

The conflict view - inequalities among children - what did Bonnie find about gender inequalities ?

Answer 53

-Bonke found that girls do more domestic labour - especially in lone parent families , where girls do 5 times as much housework as boys

Question 54

The conflict view - inequalities among children - what ethnic difference did Brannen find ?

Answer 54

-Brannen’s study of 15-16 year old girls found that Asian parents were more likely than other parents to be strict towards their daughters

Question 55

The conflict view - inequalities among children - what are some important class inequalities among children ?

Answer 55

-poor mothers are more likely to have low birth weight babies , which in turn is linked to delayed physical and intellectual development -children of unskilled manual workers are over 3 times more likely to suffer from hyperactivity and 4 times more likely to experience conduct disorders than the children of professionals -children born into poor families are also more likely to die in infancy or childhood , to suffer longstanding illness , to be shorter in height , to fall behind at school ,and to be placed on the child protection register

Question 56

Inequalities between children and adults - what do march of progress sociologists argue that these differences exist ?

Answer 56

-march of progress sociologists argue that adults use their power for the benefit and protection of children , for example passing laws against child labour

Question 57

Inequalities between children and adults - how does Firestone and Holt criticise march of progress sociologists view that adults power is used for the protection of children ?

Answer 57

-Firestone and Holt argue that many of the things that march of progress writers see as care and protection are in fact new forms of oppression and control -for example , Firestone argues that protection from paid work is not a benefit to children but a form of inequality -its a way of forcibly segregating children , making theme more dependent , powerless and more subject to adult control compared to before

Question 58

How do the conflict view of childhood believe that adults control can take an extreme form ?

Answer 58

-adult control over children can take the extreme form of physical neglect or physical , emotional or sexual abuse -childlike receives over 20,000 calls a year from children saying that they have been sexually or physically abused -these figures suggest a dark side to family life of which the children are the victims

Question 59

What are ways in Britains industrial society that control is placed over children’s space ?

Answer 59

-for example , shops may display signs such as no schoolchildren -children are told to play in some areas but are forbidden to play in others -there is increasingly close surveillance over children in public spaces such as shopping centres , especially at times when they should be in school

Question 60

Control over children’s space - what has led to more children to be driven to school ?

Answer 60

-fears about road safety and stranger danger have led to more and more Chiron being driven to school rather than travelling independently

Question 61

Control over children’s space - what is evidence that children’s space is being controlled more Trough how they get to school ?

Answer 61

-For example ,in 1971 , 86% of primary school children were allowed to travel home alone -by 2010 , this had fallen to 25%

Question 62

Control over children’s space - what did Cunningham find about the home habitats of children ?

Answer 62

-Cunningham found that the home habitat of 8 year olds (the area in which they were allowed to travel in alone ) had shrunk to one ninth of the size it was 25 years earlier

Question 63

Control over children’s space - what did Katz fid that shows control and surveillance is different in developing countries ?

Answer 63

-Katz describes how rural Sundanese children roam freely both within the village and for several kilometres outside of it

Question 64

Control over children’s time - how are ways in which adults in modern society control children’s time ?

Answer 64

-adults in modern society control children’s daily routines , including the time they get up , eat , go to school , come home , go out , play , watch tv , sleep -adults also control the speed at which children grow up , is it they who define whether a child is too young or too old for this or that activity , responsibility or behaviour

Question 65

Control over children’s bodies - what are ways that adults exercise control over their children’s bodies ?

Answer 65

-adults exercise enormous control over their children’s bodies , including how they sit , walk , run , what they wear , their hairstyle and whether or not they can have their ears pierced

Question 66

Control over children’s access to resources - what are the 3 ways that in an industrial society , children have limited opportunities to earn money so remain economically dependent on adults ?

Answer 66

-labour laws and compulsory schooling exclude children from low paid , part time employment -although the state pays child benefit , this goes to the parent and not the child -pocket money given by the parents may depend on good behaviour and there may be restrictions on what it can be spent on

Question 67

What term does Gittins use to describe the inequalities between adults and children and what does this mean and how does this link to patriarchy ?

Answer 67

-gittins uses the term age patriarchy to describe the inequalities between adults and children -Gittins believes this age patriarchy is of adult domination and child dependency -gittins points to the term patriarchy which means real by the father and this leads to Gittins to realise that the term family was originally meant to power of the male head over all family members including children as well as women

Question 68

Age patriarchy - what did Humphrey’s and Thiara find that backed up Gittins findings of age patriarchy ?

Answer 68

-Humphrys and Thiara found that a quarter of their 200 women in their study left their abusing partner because they feared for their children’s lives -this supports gittins view that the patriarchy oppresses children as well a women

Question 69

Age patriarchy - what is one strategy that Hockey and James found children use to show children resist the status of child and the restrictions that go with it ?

Answer 69

-Hockey and James describe one strategy as acting up - acting like adults by doing things that children aren’t supposed to do , such as swearing , smoking , drinking alcohol and underage sexual activity etc , similarly children may exaggerate their age eg I’m nearly 9 -acting down - behaving in ways expected of younger children is also a popular strategy for resisting adult control eg baby talk or asking to be carried -Hockey and James conclude that modern childhood is a status from which most children wish to escape

Question 70

Evaluation of the child liberationist view (adult control) ?

Answer 70

-critics of the child liberationist view argue that some adult control over children’s lives is justified on the grounds that children cannot make rational decisions and so are unable to safeguard their interests themselves -critics also argue , although children remain under adult supervision , they are not as powerless as the child liberationsation claims

Question 71

What is a different view of childhood and what does it mean ?

Answer 71

-the new sociology of childhood - this approach doesn’t see children as simply adults in the making , instead it sees children as active agents who play a major part in creating their own childhoods

Question 72

What does Mayall see as the problem as seeing childhood as a social construction ?

Answer 72

-while the social construction of childhood hero’s us to understand changes over time , there is a danger of seeing children as merely passive objects who have no part in making their own childhoods -it risks seeing children as what Mayall calls and adultist view point , that is it sees children a mere socialisation projects for adults to mould , shape and develop , of no interest in themselves , but only for what they will become in the future

Question 73

The new sociology of childhood - what did Smart et als study show about the child’s point of view ?

Answer 73

-Smart et als study of divorce found that , far from being passive victims , children were actively involved in trying to make the situation better for everyone -studies like these use unstructured interviews as are informal which empower children to express their own point of view and allow the researcher to see the world from the child’s point of view