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Biology 🧬 > Topic 2: Organisation > Flashcards

Topic 2: Organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the structure of the human heart?

A

The heart has four chambers – two atria and two ventricles – separated by valves to prevent backflow.

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2
Q

What is the structure of the human lungs?

A

The lungs consist of bronchi that branch into bronchioles ending in alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.

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3
Q

Why is the circulatory system called a double circulatory system?

A

Because blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circulation.

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4
Q

What is the function of the aorta?

A

The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.

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5
Q

What is the function of the vena cava?

A

The vena cava (vein) brings deoxygenated blood from the body back to the right atrium.

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6
Q

What is the function of the pulmonary artery?

A

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.

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7
Q

What is the function of the pulmonary vein?

A

The pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

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8
Q

What is the function of the coronary artery?

A

The coronary artery supplies oxygenated blood to the heart muscle itself. It makes sure the muscle tissue gets all the oxygen and nutrients that it needs to keep contracting.

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9
Q

What controls heart rate in the right atrium?

A

A group of cells in the right atrium acts as a natural pacemaker, controlling the heart rate.

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10
Q

How is the structure of an artery related to its function?

A

Arteries have thick muscular walls to withstand high pressure and a narrow lumen to maintain it. They always carry blood AWAY from the heart (artery - away).

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11
Q

How is the structure of a vein related to its function?

A

Veins have thinner walls and wider lumens than arteries and contain valves to prevent backflow of blood. They always carry blood TO the heart (vein - in).

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12
Q

How is the structure of a capillary related to its function?

A

Capillaries have very thin walls (one cell thick) to allow efficient exchange of substances like oxygen and carbon dioxide.

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13
Q

What is the function of plasma in the blood?

A

Plasma transports nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, and waste products.
It carries everything: red blood cells, white blood cells (+ antibodies and toxins), platelets, nutrients, waste products, hormones, proteins.

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14
Q

What is the function of red blood cells?

A

Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the body and carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

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15
Q

What is the function of white blood cells?

A

White blood cells defend the body against infection and destroy harmful microorganisms. They do this through:
- phagocytosis (engulfing pathogen)
- using antibodies (binds onto pathogens and destroys them)
- producing antitoxins (neutralise an toxins that pathogens produce)

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16
Q

What is the function of platelets?

A

Platelets (small fragments of cells) help blood clot at the site of a wound to prevent blood loss and infection.

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17
Q

How are red blood cells adapted for their function?

A

They contain haemoglobin (red pigment), which bind to oxygen.

They don’t have a nucleus, so there is more space for haemoglobin and oxygens

They are shaped like a biconcave disk, which gives them a large surface area for absorbing oxygen.

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18
Q

How do statins help treat coronary heart disease?

A

Statins are medication that alter the balance of cholesterol in the blood.

Two types of cholesterol:
Bad - LDL
Good - HDL

Too much LDL causes fatty deposits in the coronary arteries.

Benefits: lower the overall risk of CHD, strokes and heart attacks

Drawbacks: have to be taken regularly, can cause side effects (eg. head aches, kidney failure)

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19
Q

How do stents help treat coronary heart disease?

A

Stents are expandable tubes placed inside the arteries to hold them open, which ensures that the blood can keep flowing.

Benefits: surgery is quick, effective for long-time

Downsides: require surgery, risks of heart attack/infection, risk of developing blood clot near stent (thrombosis)

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20
Q

How do replacement heart valves treat heart disease?

A

Damaged valves can be replaced with mechanical or biological valves to restore proper blood flow.

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21
Q

How does a heart transplant treat heart disease?

A

A failing heart is replaced with a healthy donor heart when other treatments are not effective.

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22
Q

What is the link between diet, smoking, and exercise with cardiovascular disease?

A

Poor diet, smoking, and lack of exercise increase blood pressure and cholesterol, raising the risk of heart disease.

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23
Q

How is obesity linked to Type 2 diabetes?

A

Obesity increases insulin resistance, making it harder for the body to regulate blood sugar levels.

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24
Q

How does alcohol affect liver and brain function?

A

Excess alcohol damages liver cells and can impair brain function and structure.

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25
What is the effect of smoking on lung disease and cancer?
Smoking damages lung tissue, causes lung diseases and is a major cause of lung cancer. The toxins in smoke directly damage the blood vessels.
26
How do smoking and alcohol affect unborn babies?
They can harm fetal development, leading to low birth weight, premature birth, or birth defects.
27
What are carcinogens and how do they relate to cancer?
Carcinogens are substances like radiation or chemicals that increase the risk of cancer by causing mutations.
28
What is a communicable disease?
A disease that can be spread from person to person or through the environment, caused by pathogens. Eg. common cold, malaria
29
What is a non-communicable disease?
A disease that cannot be spread between people and is often linked to lifestyle or genetic factors. Eg. asthma, coronary heart disease, diabetes, cancer
30
How can diseases interact with each other via immune system defects?
A weakened immune system makes the body more vulnerable to infections and other diseases.
31
How can viruses trigger cancer?
Some viruses, like HPV, can cause mutations in cells that may lead to cancer.
32
How can immune reactions trigger allergies?
An overactive immune response to harmless substances can cause allergic reactions.
33
How can poor physical health lead to poor mental health?
Chronic illness or pain can lead to stress, depression, and other mental health issues.
34
What causes cancer at the cellular level?
Cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth and division.
35
What factors influence the risk of cancer?
Both genetic factors and lifestyle choices (like smoking, diet, radiation exposure) can influence cancer risk.
36
How is meristem tissue adapted for its function?
Meristem tissue is made up of plant stem cells. It’s found in the growing parts of the plant such as the tips of shoots and roots. It contains undifferentiated cells that can divide and form new cells for growth
37
How are root hair cells adapted for their function?
They have a long extension to increase surface area for water and mineral absorption from the soil.
38
What is the function of the epidermis in a leaf and how is it adapted?
The epidermis protects the leaf and reduces water loss; it is thin and often transparent to let light through.
39
What is the function of the palisade mesophyll and how is it adapted?
It carries out most of the photosynthesis and contains many chloroplasts; the cells are tightly packed near the surface for maximum light absorption.
40
What is the function of the spongy mesophyll and how is it adapted?
It allows gas exchange; there are lots of air spaces between cells to facilitate diffusion.
41
What is the function of the xylem and how is it adapted?
The xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves. It is made of dead cells forming hollow tubes with strengthened walls containing lignin.
42
What is the function of the phloem and how is it adapted?
The phloem transports sugars from leaves to the rest of the plant. It contains sieve tubes and companion cells to assist in active transport.
43
What is the function of guard cells and how are they adapted?
Guard cells open and close the stomata to control gas exchange and water loss. When the plant has lots of water, the guard cells are turgid, allowing more carbon dioxide to diffuse through. When the plant lacks water, guard cells will lose water due to osmosis and they will become flaccid. This closes the stomata, so it no longer takes in carbon dioxide but in turn conserves its water vapour. They are sensitive to light (close at night when photosynthesis isn’t taking place).
44
How does temperature affect the rate of transpiration?
Higher temperatures increase transpiration as water evaporates faster from leaf surfaces.
45
How does humidity affect the rate of transpiration?
High humidity slows down transpiration because the air is already saturated with water vapour.
46
How does wind affect the rate of transpiration?
Wind increases transpiration by removing water vapour from around the leaf, maintaining a steep concentration gradient.
47
How does light intensity affect the rate of transpiration?
Higher light intensity increases transpiration because stomata open more for photosynthesis.
48
What is transpiration and how is the xylem adapted for it?
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves, pulling water up through the xylem. The role of xylem tubes is to transport water and mineral ions from the roots, up the stem to the leaves, where water can be used for photosynthesis. Xylem vessels are hollow, strengthened with lignin, and allow one-way flow.
49
What is translocation and how is the phloem adapted for it?
Translocation is the flow of sugars (sucrose) and amino acids (proteins) in a plant via the phloem. Phloem cells have sieve plates and companion cells to support active transport. Contain pores in the end of sieve cells to allow for sucrose to flow.
50
What role do stomata play in gas exchange and water loss?
Stomata allow carbon dioxide in and oxygen out for photosynthesis. They also regulate water loss through transpiration by opening and closing.
51
How is meristem tissue adapted for its function?
Meristem tissue contains undifferentiated cells that can divide and form new cells for growth at the tips of roots and shoots.
52
How are root hair cells adapted for their function?
They have a long extension to increase surface area for water and mineral absorption from the soil.
53
What is the function of the epidermis in a leaf and how is it adapted?
The epidermis protects the leaf and reduces water loss; it is thin and often transparent to let light through.
54
What is the function of the palisade mesophyll and how is it adapted?
It carries out most of the photosynthesis and contains many chloroplasts; the cells are tightly packed near the surface for maximum light absorption.
55
What is the function of the spongy mesophyll and how is it adapted?
It allows gas exchange; the cells are loosely packed with air spaces between them to facilitate diffusion.
56
What is the function of the xylem and how is it adapted?
The xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves. It is made of dead cells forming hollow tubes with strengthened walls containing lignin.
57
What is the function of the phloem and how is it adapted?
The phloem transports sugars from leaves to the rest of the plant. It contains sieve tubes and companion cells to assist in active transport.
58
What is the function of guard cells and how are they adapted?
Guard cells open and close the stomata to control gas exchange and water loss. They change shape due to water pressure changes.
59
How does temperature affect the rate of transpiration?
Higher temperatures increase transpiration as the particles of water will have more energy, so they are more likely to evaporate.
60
How does humidity affect the rate of transpiration?
Humidity - measure of how much water vapour is in the air More humid air will decrease the rate of transpiration because the large amount of water in the most air, will decrease the concentration gradient, meaning less water will diffuse out (less evaporation overall).
61
How does wind affect the rate of transpiration?
When air flow is high (it is windy), the water molecules that leave the leaf will quickly be blown away. The concentration gradient between the inside and outside is going to be steeper, increasing the rate of transpiration.
62
How does light intensity affect the rate of transpiration?
The brighter the light intensity, the more photosynthesis can take place, which means more stomata will have to be open to let in carbon dioxide. At the same time, more water can evaporate, which means a higher rate of transpiration. Whereas, at nighttime, when there is no photosynthesis, the stomata will be closed, so there is very little transpiration.
63
What is transpiration and how is the xylem adapted for it?
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves, pulling water up through the xylem. Xylem vessels are hollow, strengthened with lignin, and allow one-way flow.
64
What is translocation and how is the phloem adapted for it?
Translocation is the movement of sugars through the phloem. Phloem tubes have sieve plates and companion cells to support active transport.
65
What role do stomata play in gas exchange and water loss?
Stomata allow carbon dioxide in and oxygen out for photosynthesis. They also regulate water loss through transpiration by opening and closing.
66
What are the different levels of organisation?
Organelles (sub-cellular structures) ➡️ cells ➡️ tissues ➡️ organs ➡️ organ systems ➡️ organisms
67
Define catalyst
A substance that speeds up a reaction, without being changed or used up in the process.
68
What is an enzyme?
An enzyme is a special type of **catalyst** that is made by a living organisms. We sometimes call them biological catalysts. Enzymes are large proteins, so made from a long chain of amino acids.
69
Explain how increasing the temperature can cause an enzyme to denature.
High temperatures start to break the bonds holding the enzyme together. This causes the enzyme and it’s active site to change shape. This means the enzymes active site will no longer be complementary to the substrate.
70
What digestive enzyme breaks down carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates (in the form of starch) ➡️ broken down by enzyme amylase ➡️ amylase is produced by organs: salivary glands, small intestines, pancreas ➡️ converted into sugars (eg. glucose)
71
What digestive enzyme breaks down proteins?
Proteins ➡️ broken down by protease ➡️ protease is produced by organs: small intensities, pancreas, stomach ➡️ converted into amino acids
72
What digestive enzyme breaks down lipids?
Lipids (eg. fats and oils) ➡️ broken down by lipase enzymes ➡️ lipase is produced by organs: pancreas, stomach ➡️ converted into glycerol and fatty acids
73
How does bile help with the digestion of lipids?
It emulsifies the lipids, which increases the surface area for lipase enzymes to break them down.
74
What are the adaptions of alveoli?
One layer of thin cells ➡️ creates a short diffusion pathway ➡️ increases the rate at which carbon dioxide and oxygen can diffuse across Many of them ➡️ gives a large surface area Moist walls ➡️ allows gases to dissolve
75
What are the 3 parts of the circulatory system?
Heart ➡️ pumps the blood to ensure it keeps flowing through the blood vessels Blood vessels ➡️ hold the blood and direct it around the body Blood ➡️ fluid which carries all the substances (eg. oxygen, nutrients, cells, waste products)
76
What is the journey of blood around the body?
Body tissues ➡️ vena cava ➡️ right atrium ➡️ right ventricle ➡️ pulmonary artery ➡️ lungs ➡️ pulmonary vein ➡️ left atrium ➡️ left ventricle ➡️ aorta ➡️ body tissues
77
What do the capillaries do?
Exchange nutrients (eg. glucose and amino acids) and oxygen with the tissues. They take away waste products, like carbon dioxide and urea. Their walls are only a single cell thick and they are permeable, which means substances can easily diffuse through them.
78
What is coronary heart disease?
When the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart muscle, start to get blocked by the built of fatty material. This causes the lumen on the arteries to become narrower so less blood can flow through. This means less oxygen reaches the heart.
79
What is a tumour and the two types?
A tumour is an abnormal mass of cells that forms when a group of cells undergo uncontrolled growth and division. Two types: Benign ➡️ contained within one area Malignant (cancer) ➡️ cells can enter bloodstream and invade other tissues

Biology 🧬 (4 decks)

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