Topic 2:organisation Flashcards
(136 cards)
1
Q
what are cells?
A
The basic building blocks that make up all organisms
2
Q
what is differentiation?
A
the process in which cells become specialized
3
Q
what is a tissue?
A
a group of similar cells
4
Q
what is an organ?
A
a group of different tissues that work together to function
5
Q
what tissues is the stomach made of?
A
1) muscular tissue- churns up food
2) Glandular tissue- makes digestive juices
3) Epithelial tissue- cover the outside and inside of the stomach
6
Q
what is an organ system?
A
A group of organs working together to perform a particular function
7
Q
what organs is the digestive system made of?
A
1)Glands- produce digestive juices
2)stomach and small intestine- digests food
3)liver- produces bile
4)small intestine- absorbs insoluble food molecules
5)the large intestine- absorbs water from undigested
food
6) gullet - esophagus
7)pancreas- produces protease, amylase and lipase enzymes for the small intestine
8) rectum- where the faeces are stored
9) Gall bladder- where bile is stored before it is released into the small intestine
8
Q
what are enzymes?
A
catalysts produced by living things
9
Q
what is a catalyst?
A
a substance that increases the speed of the reaction
10
Q
what are proteins made from?
A
chains of amino acid
11
Q
what is the active site of the enzyme?
A
a unique part of the enzyme that fits onto the substance involved in the reaction
12
Q
why do enzymes normally only work on one substance?
A
because the active site has to fit the shape of the substance involved in the reaction
13
Q
what happens if you change the temperature of a enzyme-catalyzed reaction?
A
it will speed up the reaction until a certain point in which it gets to hot and some of the bonds holding the enzyme together break and the active site changes state. the enzyme is now denatured
14
Q
what happens if you change the ph of a enzyme-catalyzed reaction?
A
if the ph is the optimum ph it will speed up the reaction. if it is not it will break bonds in the enzyme causing the active site to change shape. the enzyme is now denatured
15
Q
how do you detect starch?
A
using iodine. if the iodine changes to a blue/black there is starch
16
Q
REQUIRED PRACTICLE: how to work out the rate of enzymatic reaction
A
1) put a drop of iodine solution into every spotting tile
2) place a Bunsen burner on a heat proof mat and a tripod and gauze over the Bunsen burner. put a beaker of water on top of the tripod and heat until 35 degrees (use a thermometer to measure temperature. try to keep the temperature of the water constant throughout the experiment
3) use a syringe to add 1cm cubed of amylase solution and 1 cm cubed of a buffer solution with ph 5 to a boiling tube. put the tube into a beaker of water (using test tube holders) and wait 5 minutes
4) next use a different syringe to add 5 cm cubed of starch solution to the boiling tube
5) immediately mix the the contents of the boiling tube and start a stop clock
6) use continuous sampling to record how long it takes amylase to break down all the starch. To do this use a dropping pipette to take a fresh sample from the boiling tube every 30 seconds and put a drop into a well. when the iodine remains brow/orange starch is no longer present
7) Repeat the experiment with buffer solutions of different ph values
8) remember to contril and variables each time (eg concentration and volume of amylase solution) to make it a fair test
17
Q
how do you calculate rate of reaction?
A
RATE = CHANGE / TIME
18
Q
at ph 6 the time taken was 90s work out the rate of reaction?
A
1000/90=11s to -1 significant figure
when ph is given use this formula RATE = 1000 / TIME
19
Q
24cm3 of oxygen was released in 50s. what is the rate of reaction?
A
rate in reaction= change/time 24/50=0.48
20
Q
how are big molecules broken down in the digestive system?
A
by digestive enzymes as they are two big to pass through the walls of the digestive system
21
Q
how are small molecules broken down in the digestive system?
A
they pass through the walls of the digestive system
22
Q
what are the three places where amylase is made?
A
1) salivary glands
2) the pancreas
3) The small intestine
23
Q
what is amylase an example of?
A
carbohydrase
24
Q
what does amylase break down?
A
starch
25
what are the three places where protease is made?
1) the stomach ( although it is called pepsin there)
2) The pancreas
3) The small intestine
26
what does proteases convert?
proteins into amino acids
27
what do lipases convert?
lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
28
what are the two place where lipases are made?
1) the pancreas
| 2) the small intestine
29
where is bile produced?
in the liver it is stored in the gall bladder
30
why is the stomach to acidic for enzymes in the small intestine?
it contains hydrochloric acid HCL
31
what ph is bile?
alkaline
32
why is it important that bile is alkaline?
because it neutralizes acid so the enzymes in the small intestine can work best
33
where are enzymes in the digestive system produced?
in glands and gut lining
34
list the order of parts in the digestive system?
salivary glands, gullet, stomach, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, large intestine, small intestine, rectum
35
what is the use of salivary glands?
produce amylase into saliva
36
why is the stomach important?
1) it pummels the food with its muscular walls
2) it produces protease enzyme pepsin
3) it produces HCL for 2 reasons:
a) to kill bacteria
b) to give the right ph for protease enzyme to work
37
why is the liver important?
where bile is produced
38
why is the gall bladder important?
where bile is stored before its released into the small intestine
39
why is the pancreas important?
produces protease, amylase and lipase enzymes and releases them into the small intestine
40
why is the large intestine important?
where excess water is absorbed from food
41
why is the small intestine important?
1)produces protease, amylase and lipase enzymes2) where digested food is absorbed out of the digestive system and into blood
42
why is the rectum important?
where the faeces are stored before they exit the anus
43
how can you identify what food molecule a sample contains?
1) get a piece of food and break it up using a pestle and mortar
2) transfer the food to a beaker and add distilled water
3) stir the mixture with a glass rod to help it dissolve
4) filter the solution using a funnel lined with filter paper to get rid of the solid bits of food
44
what solution do you use to test for sugars?
benedict's solution
| it will turn from blue to green, yellow or brick red if sugar is present
45
REQUIRED PRACTICLE: how do you test for sugars?
1) prepare a food sample and transfer 5cm3 to a test tube
2) prepare a water bath and set it to 75degrees
3) add benedict's solution to the test tube using a pipette
4) place it in the water bath for 5mins using a tube holder to keep it in place
5) it will turn green, yellow or brick red if there is sugar
46
what solution do you use to test for starch?
iodine
| it will turn from browny-orange to dark blue or black if starch is present
47
REQUIRED PRACTICLE: how do you test for starch?
1) make a food sample and transfer 5cm3 of your sample to the test tube
2) add iodine solution and gently shake to mix the contents
3) if starch is present the solution will turn dark blue or black
48
what solution do you use to test for proteins?
biuret solution
| it will turn from blue to pink or purple if protein is present
49
REQUIRED PRACTICLE: how do you test for protein?
1) prepare a sample of your food and transfer 2cm3 of your sample to a test tube
2) add 2cm3 of biuret solution to the sample and mix the contents of the tube by gently shaking it
3) it will change to pink or purple if protein is present
50
what solution do you use to test for lipids?
sudan III
| it will separate into two layers the top one being bright red if lipids are present
51
REQUIRED PRACTICLE: how do you test for lipids?
1) prepare a sample of the food you are testing transfer 5cm3 to a test tube
2) use a pipette to add 3 drops of sudan III stain solution to the test tube and gently shake the tube
3) if lipids are present it will separate into 2 different layers the top one being bright red
52
what region of your body are the lungs found in?
thorax region
53
what separates the lungs from the bottom half of the body?
the diaphragm
54
what protects the lungs?
the ribcage
55
where does the air that we breathe in go through the lungs?
through the trachea that splits into bronchi (two tube one going into each lung)
56
what are the small tubes in the lungs?
bronchioles
57
what happens in the alveoli?
gas exchange takes place
58
what happens when blood reaches a body cell?
- oxygen diffuses from the blood into the body cell
| - C02 diffuses from the body cell into the blood
59
what happens in the alveoli?
- next to the alveoli the blood is rich in C02
- the C02 diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli
- the oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood
60
how do you work out breathes per minute?
number of breathes/number of minutes
61
bob takes 91 breathes in 7mins work out his average breathing rate per minute?
91/7=13
62
what is thew circulatory system made of?
heart,blood vessels and blood
63
what does the circulatory system do?
carries food and oxygen to every body cell
64
how does the circulatory system work?
1) the right ventricle pumps de oxygenated blood to the lungs to take in oxygen
2) the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood around all the bodily organs
65
what does the heart do?
a pumping organ that pumps blood around the body
66
why can the heart not pump the blood backwards?
because valves stop this
67
how does the heart pump blood around the body?
1) blood flows into two atria from the vena cava and pulmonary vein
2) the atria contract pushing the blood into the ventricles
3) the ventricles contract forcing the blood into the pulmonary artery and aorta out of the heart
4) the blood then flows to the organs through arteries and back through veins
68
how does the heart make sure it has oxygenated blood?
coronary arteries makes sure it gets oxygenated blood
69
how does your heart beat?
- it is controlled by cells in the right atrium that acta s a pacemaker
- they make a small electric impulse that makes the heart beat
70
what can you do if your heart doesnt beat properly?
get a artificial pacemaker that allows your heart to beat
71
what does an artery do?
carries blood away from the heart
72
what does a vein do?
carries blood towards the heart
73
what do capillaries do?
involved with the exchange of materials at the tissues
74
what are the characteristics of arteries?
- carry blood at high pressure so the artery walls are strong and elastic
- the walls are thicker than the lumen (the hole in the middle)
- they have thick layers of muscle
75
what are the characteristics of capillaries?
- arteries branch into capillaries
- they are tiny
- they carry blood o the cells in the body to exchange substances with them
- they have permeable walls so diffusion is quick
- they supply food and oxygen and take away CO2
- their walls are one cell thick so diffusion is really quick
76
what are the characteristics of veins?
- thinner walls than arteries as the blood is at lower pressure
- they have bigger lumen(the hole in the middle)
- they have valves to help the blood flow in one direction
77
what is the formula for rate of blood flow?
rate of blood flow= volume of blood/number of minutes
78
1464ml of blood passed through an artery in 4.5 minutes what is the rate of blood flow?
1464/4.5=325ml/min
79
how do red blood cells carry oxygen?
1) their shape is a biconcave disc that gives a large surface area for absorbing blood
2) they dont have a nucleus so their is more room for blood
3) they have a red pigment called haemoglobin
4) in the lungs haemglobin binds to oxygen to make oxyhaemoglobin. in the tissues the oxygen and haemoglobin splits to allow oxygen into the cells
80
how do white blood cells fight infection?
1) Some change shape to kill the microorganism (this is called phagocytosis)
2) others produce antibodies o fight microorganisms and antitoxins to neutralise any toxins produced by the infection
3) white blood cells have a nucleus
81
what do platelets do?
helps blood clot
82
what are features of platelets?
1) they are small fragments of cells with no nucleus
2) they help blood to clot and stops microorganisms getting in
3) lack of platelets can cause bleeding and bruising
83
what does plasma carry?
- red and white blood cells
- nutrients like glucose and amino acids
- CO2 from organs to the lungs
- Urea from liver to kidneys
- Hormones
- Proteins
- Antibodies and antitoxins
84
what is plasmas job?
a liquid that carries everything through blood
85
what is a cardiovascular disease?
diseases of the heart or blood vessels
86
what is coronary heart disease?
when the coronary arteries that supply blood to the muscle of the heart get blocked by layers of fatty materials building up inside the conorary arteries narrowing them this causes lack of blood flow resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle
87
what do stents do/ how do they work?
they are tubes inserted into arteries to keep them open making sure blood can pass to the heart
88
what are the advantages of stents?
- lower risk of heart attacks
- effective for long and short term
- the surgery is relatively quick
89
what are the disadvantages of stents?
- risk of complications in the operation
- risk of infection
- risk of patents developing blood clot
90
what do Statins do?
they are drugs that reduce high cholesterol
91
what are the advantages of statins?
- reduce risk of strokes, coronary heart disease and heart attacks
- increase the amount of good cholesterol
- may prevent other diseases
92
what are the disadvantages of statins?
- long term drug that have to be taken regularly
- negative side effects
- their effect isn't instant
93
what is an artificial heart?
mechanical devices that pump blood for a person whoes own heart has failed. it is a short term option to help your heart recover
94
what are the advantages of artificial hearts?
-less likely to be rejected by their body's immune system
95
what are the disadvantages of artificial hearts?
- infection or bleeding from surgery
- they don't work as well as natural ones
- can cause blood clots
- patient has to take drugs that help thin their blood
96
what can you do if your valve wont open properly?
you can either get a replacement human, animal or man made valve
97
why would a valve be damaged?
infection, heart attacks or old age
98
what happens if you lose a lot of blood in an accident?
you replace it with artificial blood
99
what is health?
is the state of physical, mental and social well being
100
what is a communicable diseases?
diseases that can spread from person to person
they may be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites
examples of it is malaria and measles
101
what is a non-communicable disease?
diseases that cant spread
they are long term and get worse
cancer, CHD, asthma are all examples
102
can diseases interact?
yes
- defects in the immune system can mean an indivdual is more likely to suffer infectious diseases
- viruses in living cells can trigger cancer
- severe physical ill health can lead to depression
103
what factors other that diseases can effect your health?
1) if you have a balanced diet
2) if you are under stress
3) your life situation -eg if you have access to medicines
104
what is a risk factor?
something that is linked to an increase in the likelihood that a person will develop a certain disease
105
name examples of risk factors directly causing a disease?
- smoking is directly linked to lung cancer, cardiovascular disease
- obesity links to type 2 diabetes
- the effect of alcohol on liver and brain function
- the effect of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies
- carcinogens including ionising radiation as a risk factor
106
what do more people die from communicable or non-communicable diseases?
non-communicable because they get worse the longer you have them
107
what is cancer?
uncontrolled cell growth
108
what is a tumor?
a mass of cells
109
what is a benign tumor?
growths of abnormal cells wich are contained in one area of the body and do not invade other areas
110
what is malignant?
this is where a tumor grows and spreads to a number of places through the bloodstream
111
what is a secondary tumor?
a tumor that has spread and grown in other parts of the body
112
what lifestyle factors can increase cancer?
- smoking- can increase lung cancer, mouth, bowel, stomache and cervical cancer
- obesity- can increase bowel, liver and kidney cancer
- UV exposure- can increase skin cancer
- viral infection- can increase liver cancer these infections can be spread through unprotected sex or sharing needles
- genetic- can develop lots of cancer including breast and ovarian cancer
113
give examples of 5 different tissues and their function?
1) epidermal tissue- this covers the whole plant
2) palisade mesophyll tissue- this is where photosynthesis happens
3) spongy mesophyll tissue- has big spaces for gases to diffuse
4) Xylem and phloem- they support water, mineral irons and food through plants
5) meristem tissue- can change into lots of different cells allowing the plant to grow
114
how are the epidermal tissue adapted for its function?
it is covered in waxy cuticle hat doesn't allow water to evaporate out
115
how are the upper epidermis adapted for its function?
it is transparent to allow light to pass through to the palisade layer
116
how are the palisade layer adapted for its function?
it has lots of chloroplasts so it can photosynthesise it is also near the top of the leaf so it can get light
117
how are the xylem and phloem adapted for its function?
they carry water and nutrients whilst taking glucose from the plant also it supplies structure
118
how are the tissues of leaves adapted for gas exchange?
lower epidermis is full of holes called stomata which allows CO2 to diffuse directly to the leaf the guard cells can open and close the stomata
the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll allows gas to diffuse quickly
119
what is transpiration effected by?
1) LIGHT INTENSITY- the brighter the light the greater the transpiration rate stomata close in the dark as photosynthesis cant happen in the dark
2) TEMPERATURE-when its warm transpiration happens more quickly as the water particles have more energy to diffuse
3) AIR FLOW-the faster the air flow is outside the leaf the faster transpiration will be as there will be a lower concentration of water outside the leaf
4) HUMIDITY-the drier the air around the leaf the faster transpiration will happen as water concentration will be less outside the leaf
120
how can you estimate rate of transpiration?
by measuring uptake of water by a plant this is because you can ten assume water uptake is related to water loss by leaves (transpiration) you can do this by measuring bubble movement (this tells you the rate the plant takes in water as the bubble moves at the same speed as the water)
121
how are guard cells adapted to open and close stomata?
1) they have a kidney shape that opens and closes stomata
2) when the guard cells have lots of water they go plump and turgid this causes the stomata to open so gases can be exchanged for photosynthesis
3) when the plant is short of water the go flaccid closing the stomata
4) thin outer walls and thin inner walls makes the opening and closing work
5) they are sensitive to light so close at night
122
why do you find stomata on the underside of leaves?
because the underside is more shaded and cooler which allows less water to be lost
123
what do guard cells do?
they control water loss and gas exchange by opening and closing the stomata
124
what do xylem cells do and how?
1) made of dead cells joined end to end with no walls between them and a hole in the middle they are strengthened with a material called ligin
2) they carry water and mineral ions from roots to stems and leaves
3) they movement of water is through xylem is called the transpiration stream
125
what do phloem tubes do and how?
1) made of columns of elongated living cells with small pours in cell wall to allow cell sap through
2) they transport food substances
3) they transport in both directions
4) the process is called translocation
126
what is transpiration?
the evaporation and diffusion of water from a plants leaves
127
what is the transpiration stream?
the stream of water taken to a plants leaves by xylem cells to compensate for the water being lost through transpiration the stream is constant
128
what is a maligant tumor?
maligant tumor cells are cancers they invade neighboring tissues and spread to different parts of the body where they form secondary tumors
129
what are 5 examples of plant tissues?
- epidermal tissue
- palisade mesophyll
- spongy mesophyll
- xylem and phloem
130
what plant tissue make up the system for substance transport aaround the plant?
- roots
- stem
- leaves
131
what are root hair cells adapted for?
efficent uptake of water by active transport
132
what do digestive enzymes do?
convert food into small molecules that can be absorbed into the blood stream
133
where does the right ventricle pump blood?
blood to the lungs
134
where does the left ventricle pump blood?
pumps blood around the body
135
what is blood?
a tissue consisting of plasm, in wich red blood cell whit blood cells and platelets are suspended
136
what is the lock and key theory?
a simplified version of how an enzyme works.
| it shows a substrate fitting perfectly to the active site of the enzyme before splitting into two products
