Topic 3: Attachment Flashcards
1
Q
Define attachment.
A
Attachment = a close two-way emotional bond between two individuals in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
2
Q
What behaviours show attachment?
A
Proximity - people try to stay physically close to their attachment figure
Separation anxiety - people show signs of anxiety and distress when an attachment figure leaves their presence
Secure-base behaviour - even when people are independent of their attachment figure they tend to make regular contact with them
3
Q
Define reciprocity.
A
Interaction where both caregiver and infant respond to each other’s signals and each elicits a response from the other.
4
Q
What did Feldman and Eidelman (2007) find about reciprocity?
A
Feldman and Eidelman found that babies have alert phases where they signal that they need social interaction, which mothers respond to ⅔ of the time.
5
Q
What did Finegood et al (2016) find about reciprocity?
A
Finegood et al found that how frequently mothers respond in alert phases varies according to the skill of the mother and external factors, e.g. stress.
6
Q
When does reciprocity become apparent and increasingly frequent?
A
From 3 months (Feldman 2007).
7
Q
What did Brazelton et al (1975) find about reciprocity?
A
Brazelton et al found that caregiver and baby take turns initiating interaction. This was described as similar to a dance.
8
Q
Define interactional synchrony.
A
Interaction when mother and infant reflect the actions and emotions of each other and do this in a synchronised, coordinated manner.
9
Q
How did Feldman define interactional synchrony?
A
As ‘the temporal coordination of micro-level social behaviour’.
10
Q
What did Isabella et al (1989) find about interactional synchrony?
A
Isabella et al found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better-quality attachment.
11
Q
What did Meltzoff and Moore (1977) find about interactional synchrony?
A
Meltzoff and Moore researched interactional synchrony in very young babies and found that when an adult displayed a distinctive facial expression or gesture, the baby’s expression and gesture (as observed by independent observers) was more likely to mirror the adult’s than chance would predict.
12
Q
Give three strengths of caregiver-infant research.
A
- Observations are controlled and less likely to be affected by demand characteristics, which increases internal validity
- Observations are filmed from multiple angles, ensuring that the researcher can capture fine detail, and establish inter-observer reliability with multiple observers
- Caregiver-infant research has practical applications in parenting skills training - e.g. Crotwell et al (2013) found that Parent-Child Interaction Therapy improved interactional synchrony in low-income mothers and pre-school children
Counterpoint: Research is also socially sensitive because it can be used to argue that mothers shouldn’t return to work soon after giving birth, for risk of damaging their baby’s development (other research by Fox in 1977 shows that working mothers will still have time to develop interactional synchrony)
13
Q
Give two limitations of caregiver-infant research.
A
- When observing infants, it is hard to distinguish between random movements and conscious, deliberate reciprocity or interactional synchrony
- While researchers have identified reciprocity and interactional synchrony, it is unknown why they happen (although there is some evidence that they are important in developing attachment and helpful in stress responses, empathy and moral development (Isabella et al 1989))
14
Q
Define primary caregiver.
A
The person who spends the most time with the baby and cares for their needs.
15
Q
Define primary attachment figure.
A
The person to whom the baby has the strongest attachment (the baby’s relationship with their primary attachment figure forms the basis of all later close emotional relationships).
16
Q
What did Schaffer and Emerson (1964) find about fathers as secondary attachment figures?
A
- most babies become attached to their mother first, at around 7 months
- in 3% of cases the father was the sole first attachment
- in 27% of cases the baby became attached to both parents at the same time
- 75% of cases formed attachments with their fathers by 18 months
17
Q
What did Grossman (2002) find in his longitudinal study on the effect of infant attachment on adolescent attachment?
A
Grossman found that the quality of attachment to mothers had an effect on the quality of adolescent attachment, but the quality of attachment to fathers did not. However, the quality of fathers’ play was related to the quality of adolescent attachment, suggesting that fathers may have a different role in attachment.
18
Q
What did Field (1978) find about fathers as primary attachment figures?
A
Field filmed 4 month old babies’ face-to-face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers. Primary caregiver fathers acted more similarly to primary caregiver mothers than secondary caregiver fathers, spending more time smiling, imitating and holding infants (signs of attachment). This suggests that fathers can be a more nurturing attachment figure (contrary to what Grossman found).
19
Q
Give a strength of research into the role of the father.
A
The research has real-world applications - it can be used to reduce parental anxiety over either not having a father around, or to reassure working mothers that fathers are capable of becoming primary attachment figures.
20
Q
Give four limitations of research into the role of the father.
A
- Research is inconsistent and confusing as different researchers research different aspects of attachment to fathers - some investigate fathers as secondary attachment figures and some as primary attachment figures, and this means that different studies have different conclusions about the father’s role in attachment
- MacCallum and Golombok (2004) found that children without fathers develop in the same way to children with fathers and mothers - this suggests that fathers don’t have a unique role in attachment
Counterpoint: it could be that in heterosexual two-parent families fathers take on a specific role, but families without fathers can adapt to accommodate this role - There are different explanations for why fathers are not typically primary attachment figures - some see it as due to socialisation from traditional gender roles, while some explain it through biology (the higher levels of oestrogen in females)
- Research can be affected by observer bias caused by social preconceptions about fathers’ behaviour
21
Q
What was the aim of Schaffer and Emerson’s 1964 study?
A
To investigate the formation of early attachments, specifically the age at which they develop, their emotional intensity and to whom they are directed.
22
Q
What method was used in Schaffer and Emerson’s 1964 study?
A
Schaffer and Emerson used a sample of 60 babies (31 male and 29 female), all from Glasgow
They visited the babies with their mothers at home every month for a year, and then again when the babies were aged 18 months
The mothers were asked questions to assess the babies’ attachments, using the indicators of stranger and separation anxiety
23
Q
What were the findings of Schaffer and Emerson’s 1964 study?
A
50% of babies showed separation anxiety to a specific adult (usually their mother) by 25-32 weeks - this is called specific attachment
Attachment occurs with the caregiver who is the most sensitive to the baby’s emotional needs, not who they spend the most time with
By 40 weeks old, 80% of babies had formed a specific attachment and 30% had formed multiple attachments
By 18 months old, 75% of babies had developed secondary attachments
24
Q
What did Schaffer and Emerson conclude after their 1964 study?
A
Babies’ attachment behaviours change relevant to their age and once they have formed attachments with one caregiver they are able to form multiple attachments. The most emotionally intense relationship is with the person who is most responsive to the baby’s needs. Usually, the primary attachment figure is the mother.
25
Give three strengths of Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study.
- Schaffer and Emerson were able to carry out a scientific study of attachment development because they used simple behaviours like stranger anxiety and separation anxiety to define attachment - these behaviours were easy to observe, so judgements were objective and the study had good inter-observer reliability
- The study took place in the family homes and most observations were carried out by parents - this means the babies’ behaviour is likely to be natural, so it has a high external validity
- The study had a longitudinal design - the same children were used throughout the study and followed-up, meaning the study has a high internal validity, as it is not affected by participant variables
26
Give two limitations of Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study.
- It could be argued that the behavioural categories used by Schaffer and Emerson were too vague to correctly determine attachment, and therefore the study has lower validity
- All the families used were from the same area of Glasgow and social class - the results may not be generalisable to other cultures
27
What are Schaffer's four stages of attachment?
1. Asocial stage
2. Indiscriminate attachment
3. Specific attachment
4. Multiple attachments
28
What are the features of the asocial stage?
Babies’ behaviour towards humans and towards inanimate objects is similar
Babies prefer faces to non-faces
Babies recognise specific faces
Babies have a preference for familiar individuals
Babies will smile at anyone
Babies are happier in the presence of humans than alone
29
What are the features of the indiscriminate attachment stage?
Babies recognise and prefer familiar individuals
Babies smile more at familiar faces than unfamiliar faces
Babies will accept comfort from any adult
Babies prefer people to inanimate objects
30
What are the features of the specific attachment stage?
Babies show stranger anxiety
Babies show separation anxiety
Babies will exhibit a primary attachment to one particular individual
Babies will use familiar adults as a secure base
31
What are the features of the multiple attachment stage?
Babies will form secondary attachments with familiar adults with whom they spend time
Babies will continue to show stranger and separation anxiety, and use familiar adults as a secure base
32
Give two strengths of Schaffer's stages of attachment.
Some research indicates that babies form attachments to a single primary caregiver before forming multiple attachments
Schaffer and Emerson’s stages have real-world application - it is possible for parents to plan their use of day care using the stages so that day care is used less in the specific attachment stage, when it can be problematic due to the child’s stranger and separation anxiety from their primary attachment figure
33
Give three limitations of Schaffer's stages of attachment.
There is poor evidence for the asocial stage - as babies under 8 weeks have poor coordination and are generally immobile, it is difficult to judge their social interaction through observation of behaviour
It has been shown that in collectivist cultures where babies have multiple caregivers, multiple attachments can be formed earlier and the third stage of attachment is often skipped
There are problems with assessing multiple attachment - it is difficult to distinguish between behaviour towards secondary attachment figures and towards playmates
34
What was the aim of Lorenz's 1935 study on geese?
To investigate imprinting in geese - where young geese attach to the first moving object they see after birth and follow that object to learn their behaviours.
35
What method was used in Lorenz's 1935 study?
Lorenz randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs - half the eggs were hatched with the mother in their natural environment, and the other half were hatched in an incubator and the first moving object they saw was Lorenz.
36
What were the findings of Lorenz's 1935 study?
The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere whereas the control group followed their mother
Even when the two groups were mixed up the incubator group still followed Lorenz and the control group still followed their mother
37
Define filial imprinting.
When young animals attach to the first moving object they see (usually their parent) and follow that object around, learning their behavioural characteristics from that figure.
38
What is the critical period in geese?
If imprinting does not occur during this time (first 16 hours of life) then it will not be possible to form an attachment at all.
39
Define sexual imprinting.
Where adult animals will form an opinion of what a desirable mate is based on who/what they initially imprinted on.
40
Give three strengths of Lorenz's 1935 study?
There is other research supporting imprinting - Regolin and Vallortigara’s 1995 study found that chicks who were exposed to shape combinations that moved would later follow the first shape combination they saw
There have been attempts to apply Lorenz’s research to human behaviour - Seebach in 2005 suggested that computer users become attached similarly to their first computer operating system, leading them to reject others
Witte and Sawka’s 2002 study supports sexual imprinting - they found that zebra finches reared by parents adorned with a red feather later showed a preference towards potential mates with a red feather, while zebra finches reared by unadorned parents did not show a preference for feathers in their potential mates
41
Give two limitations of Lorenz's 1935 study.
Lorenz’s findings cannot fully be generalised to humans - mammals are more emotionally attached to their young than birds and can form attachments at any time
Later researchers questioned Lorenz’s idea that imprinting has a permanent effect on mating behaviour - Guiton et al’s 1966 study found that while chickens who had imprinted on yellow washing up gloves initially directed courtship behaviours towards the gloves, with experience they preferred mating with other chickens
42
What was the aim of Harlow's 1958 study on rhesus monkeys?
To investigate whether food or comfort is more important for attachment, and whether a soft but inanimate object can perform the functions of a mother.
43
What method was used in Harlow's 1958 study?
Harlow reared 16 baby monkeys separated from their mothers with two wire-model ‘mothers’
Usually, milk was dispensed by the plain-wire mother, and there was also a cloth-covered mother
In other conditions, milk was dispensed by the cloth-covered mother, and in one condition there was no cloth-covered mother, only a plain-wire mother
44
What were the findings of Harlow's 1958 study?
The monkeys would cuddle the cloth-covered mother in preference to the plain-wire mother
When frightened by the researchers, the monkeys would seek comfort from the cloth-covered mother
45
What did Harlow find when he followed the monkeys into adulthood?
The monkeys who had only had a plain-wire mother were the most dysfunctional
All monkeys were more aggressive and less social than other monkeys, and bred less often as they had trouble mating
When the monkeys bred, some neglected their young and others attacked them - some of their offspring even died
46
How long is the critical period identified by Harlow for monkeys?
Within 90 days of birth.
47
Give a strength of Harlow's 1958 study.
Harlow’s research has important real-world applications - it allows social workers to understand the dangers of a lack of bonding experience, and means we now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys
48
Give two limitations of Harlow's 1958 study.
Although monkeys are more closely related to humans than birds, the human brain and human behaviour is still more complex, so Harlow’s research may not be generalisable to humans
Harlow’s research has severe ethical implications due to the suffering of the monkeys
49
Who proposed the learning theory for attachment?
Dollard and Millar.
50
How does learning theory suggest classical conditioning works in building attachment?
Food is an unconditioned stimulus for babies - they instinctively feel pleasure (an unconditioned response) when they are fed
Originally, the caregiver is a neutral stimulus which elicits no response
Over time, as the caregiver is usually providing food, the baby begins to associate the caregiver with being fed
Eventually, the caregiver becomes a conditioned stimulus, producing pleasure (conditioned response) in the baby even when not feeding them
51
How does learning theory suggest operant conditioning works in building attachment?
Crying and being comforted is an important behaviour in building attachment
When babies cry, they receive positive reinforcement from the caregiver, who comforts them
This makes the baby more likely to cry when they next need comfort
When the caregiver comforts the baby, they receive negative reinforcement as the crying (which causes the caregiver distress) stops
This makes the caregiver more likely to comfort the baby
As these behaviours are reinforced and will happen over and over, over time an attachment is developed
52
According to learning theory, what are the child's primary and secondary drives and reinforcers?
Primary drive - hunger
Primary reinforcer - food
Secondary reinforcer - caregiver
Secondary drive - attachment
53
Give a strength of learning theory as an explanation for attachment.
Conditioning could still be involved with forming attachments - the caregiver could be associated with contact comfort rather than food
54
Give four limitations of learning theory as an explanation for attachment.
Animal research contradicts learning theory - Lorenz’s geese imprinted before being fed, Harlow’s monkeys attached to the cloth mother rather than the wire mother who produced milk
Human research also contradicts learning theory - many of the babies in Schaffer and Emerson’s study developed a primary attachment to their biological mother even when fed mostly by someone else
This theory ignores other factors associated with forming attachments, like reciprocity and interactional synchrony
Even if conditioning is used with contact comfort to explain attachment, this still sees babies as more passive in forming attachments, which is contradicted by Feldman and Eidelman’s research
55
How do Hay and Vespo (1998) use social learning theory to explain attachment and how does this explanation overcome limitations of learning theory?
Hay and Vespo suggest that parents teach children to love them by modelling attachment behaviours and reinforcing them through showing approval (this overcomes the passivity of learning theory as it sees attachment as resulting from two-way baby-adult interactions).
56
Why is Bowlby's theory described as monotropic?
Because he believed that a child's primary attachment figure has a unique attachment to the child which will affect their later relationships.
57
Why does Bowlby believe attachment happens?
Bowlby explained attachment as an innate evolutionary behaviour that gives a survival advantage as it ensures that young infants stay close to their caregivers, which protects them from hazards.
58
What two principles did Bowlby propose for attachment?
Law of continuity - a principle suggested by Bowlby stating that attachment depends on how constant and predictable the child’s care is
Law of accumulated separation - Bowlby suggests that the effects of every separation from the primary attachment figure on the baby will add up
59
Define social releasers.
Social releasers = innate behaviours babies exhibit to gain attention from others
60
How did Bowlby adapt Lorenz's idea of a critical period for geese to humans?
Bowlby proposed humans have a sensitive period of 6 months to 2 years - if children do not form an attachment during this period, they will find it much harder to form attachments later in life.
61
What is an internal working model?
An idea proposed by Bowlby that children form a mental representation (similar to a schema) of what relationships are like, based on their attachment to their primary attachment figure. Their IWM will affect the relationships they have later in life and how they treat people. The IWM is why children tend to have similar attachments to their parents - if a child is securely attached, they will then base their parenting on their childhood and their children are more likely to be securely attached (and vice versa).
62
Give four strengths of Bowlby's monotropic theory.
Brazelton et al’s 1975 study supports social releasers - they observed babies’ use of social releasers and interactional synchrony, finding that when social releasers were ignored, the babies became distressed
Bailey et al’s 2007 study supports the internal working models - the mothers with insecure attachment were more likely to have insecurely attached babies and vice versa
Schaffer and Emerson’s 1964 study supports monotropy - the babies usually formed a (stronger) primary attachment first before forming multiple attachments
Prior to Bowlby's theory, mothers were seen as unimportant to child development and so many custody disputes were settled in favour of fathers
63
Give three limitations of Bowlby's monotropic theory.
Suess et al’s 2002 study does not support monotropy - while they found that the first attachment is stronger and can predict later relationship quality, it is not qualitatively different from other attachments
Some psychologists believe that the child’s genetic personality traits could affect their attachment and their parenting (e.g. Kornienko 2016) - this suggests that Bowlby may have overstated the importance of the IWM
Monotropy is a socially sensitive idea - feminists like Erica Burman (1994) have argued that Bowlby’s theory allows people to restrict mothers’ behaviour, such as stopping them working
64
Who developed the Strange Situation as a method of assessing attachment?
Mary Ainsworth.
65
What was the aim of the Strange Situation?
To observe key attachment behaviours as a means of assessing the quality of a child’s attachment to their caregiver.
66
What method was used in the Strange Situation?
Controlled observation in controlled conditions
Psychologists observe the child’s behaviour through a two-way mirror
The child goes through seven 3 minute episodes
67
What were the seven episodes in the Strange Situation and what attachment behaviours did they test?
Child and caregiver alone together - tests proximity-seeking, exploration and secure-base behaviour
The stranger enters - tests proximity-seeking and stranger anxiety
The caregiver leaves the child alone with the stranger - tests stranger anxiety and separation anxiety
The caregiver returns and the stranger leaves - tests reunion behaviour, exploration and secure-base behaviour
The child is left alone - tests separation anxiety
The stranger enters - tests stranger anxiety and separation anxiety
The caregiver returns and the stranger leaves - tests reunion behaviour
68
What were the three attachment styles identified by Ainsworth?
Type A - insecure-avoidant
Type B - secure
Type C - insecure-resistant
69
What is an insecure-avoidant attachment characterised by?
- high exploration
- low proximity-seeking
- doesn't use caregiver as a secure base
- low stranger anxiety
- low separation anxiety
- avoidance of comfort at reunion
70
What is a secure attachment characterised by?
- moderate exploration
- moderate proximity-seeking
- uses caregiver as a secure base
- moderate stranger anxiety
- moderate separation anxiety
- accepts comfort at reunion
71
What is an insecure-resistant attachment characterised by?
- low exploration
- high proximity-seeking
- doesn't use caregiver as a secure base
- high stranger anxiety
- high separation anxiety
- ambivalence to comfort at reunion
72
Give two strengths of the Strange Situation.
The experiment has good inter-observer reliability, likely due to the easy to observe behavioural categories and controlled conditions - this means we can be confident that the identified attachment type of a child in the Strange Situation will be the same no matter who observes the child
Real-world examples support the validity of the study - attachment types have been shown to predict later development
73
Give two limitations of the Strange Situation.
Jerome Kagan (1982) has suggested that temperament is more important than attachment in the Strange Situation - this could be considered a confounding variable
The Strange Situation could be described as culture-bound as it doesn’t always work in countries outside western Europe and the USA - this is because cultural differences in childhood experiences mean that children respond differently and caregivers from different cultures will behave differently
74
What did Main and Solomon (1986) suggest about attachment styles?
They suggested a fourth attachment style - disorganised attachment, which is characterised by a mixture of resistant and avoidant behaviours and usually only occurs as a result of extreme neglect and/or abuse.
75
What was the aim of van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's 1988 study into cultural variations in attachment?
To investigate the differences in proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment styles across a range of countries, as well as differences within countries.
76
What was the method used in van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's 1988 study?
Meta-analysis of 32 studies across 8 countries, each using the Strange Situation to assess attachment
The studies overall yielded data for 1990 children
77
What were the findings of van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's 1988 study?
Secure was the most common attachment style across all the countries, ranging from 75% of children in Britain to 50% in China
Insecure-resistant was the least common attachment style overall, ranging from 30% in Israel to 3% in Britain
Insecure-avoidant was most common in Germany and least in Japan
Variations between studies in the same country were bigger than variations between countries
78
What did van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg conclude from their 1988 study into cultural variations in attachment?
Secure attachment is highest in a range of countries, supporting Bowlby’s theory of innate attachment which gives a survival advantage. However, the research clearly shows that cultural practices can influence attachment type.
79
What did Simonella et al find in their 2014 Italian study using the Strange Situation and how did they explain the results?
50% of the children studied had secure attachment, 36% insecure-avoidant and 14% insecure-resistant
Simonella et al suggested that the lower percentage of secure attachment and higher percentage of insecure-avoidant attachment was due to the increase in working mothers, implying that cultural changes can change attachment patterns.
80
What did Jin et al find in their 2014 Korean study using the Strange Situation and how could these results be explained?
Secure was the most common attachment style
Only 1 child had an insecure-avoidant attachment style - this is similar to the Japanese results used by van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
This can be explained by similarities in parenting between Korea and Japan
81
Define etic.
Etic = cultural universals
82
Define emic.
Emic = cultural uniqueness
83
Give a strength of studies into cultural variations in attachment.
van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study has a large sample size and Simonella et al’s study used large comparison groups from studies in different countries - this means the studies have high internal validity as the impact of anomalous results is reduced
84
Give three limitations of studies into cultural variations in attachment.
The results are unrepresentative of culture as countries contain many different cultures - an analysis by van Ijzendoorn and Sagi (2001) found that in Tokyo, attachment patterns were more similar to those found in Western studies, whereas rural areas had bigger variation
Imposed etic - in other countries, children’s behaviour could be more affected by culture than attachment type
Jerome Kagan (1982) has suggested that temperament is more important than attachment in the Strange Situation - this could be considered a confounding variable
85
What did van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggest about similar parenting styles across countries?
van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg proposed that small cross-cultural differences could reflect the effects of mass media - where a large number of books and television programmes that advocate similar parenting styles are disseminated across countries.
86
What is the difference between separation and deprivation?
Separation = not being in the presence of the primary caregiver
Brief separations are not significant for development, but extended separations can lead to deprivation
Deprivation = when a child loses an element of care or has prolonged separation from a primary caregiver
Deprivation can lead to serious damage to emotional and intellectual development
87
What did Bowlby believe about the first 30 months of life?
The first 30 months of life are critical for psychological development
If a child is separated from their primary caregiver during this time and does not have a mother substitute to provide emotional care then Bowlby believed psychological damage is inevitable
88
How does maternal deprivation affect intellectual development?
It can cause abnormally low IQ - intellectual disability disorder.
89
What did Goldfarb (1947) find about children raised in institutions?
Goldfarb found that children raised in institutions had a lower IQ than those who were fostered and would therefore receive more emotional care.
90
How does maternal deprivation affect emotional development?
It prevents the development of normal relationships and can lead to affectionless psychopathy.
91
What is affectionless psychopathy?
Affectionless psychopathy = the inability to experience guilt or feel empathy for others
Affectionless psychopaths are associated with criminality as they do not appreciate the feelings of their victims and lack remorse for their actions
92
What was the aim of Bowlby's 44 thieves study?
To investigate the link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation.
93
What was the method of Bowlby's 44 thieves study?
44 teenagers accused of stealing were compared with a control group who were not criminal but were emotionally disturbed
They interviewed the teenagers and their families to determine whether the teenagers were affectionless psychopaths and whether they had experienced maternal deprivation
94
What were the findings of Bowlby's 44 thieves study?
14 of the 44 thieves were affectionless psychopaths - 12 of these had experienced maternal deprivation
5 of the thieves who were not affectionless psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation
Only 2 of the control group had experienced maternal deprivation
95
What was the conclusion of Bowlby's 44 thieves study?
Deprivation/prolonged early separation from the primary caregiver causes affectionless psychopathy.
96
Give two strengths of Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation.
Levy et al (2003) found that maternal deprivation in rats led to permanent effects on their social development (but not other areas of development)
Gao et al (2010) showed that poor quality maternal care was associated with high rates of psychopathy in adults
97
Give two limitations of Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation.
The evidence for the theory is flawed - as the 44 thieves study was carried out by Bowlby himself, it is open to bias, and Goldfarb’s study (which inspired Bowlby) had problems with confounding variables due to the fact that the children studied had experienced early trauma and institutional care as well as deprivation from their primary caregivers
Rutter (1981) argued that Bowlby was actually referring to the effects of privation (never having a primary attachment) rather than deprivation (separation from the primary attachment figure), because the children in his study had disrupted early lives and may have never formed an attachment, and that he overstated the effects of deprivation
The critical period has been questioned - Koluchova (1976) found that twins who were severely abused and never formed an attachment later recovered fully, suggesting it is more of a sensitive period
Lewis (1954) found no association between deprivation and affectionless psychopathy
98
What was the aim of Rutter et al's ERA study?
To investigate the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions.
99
What was the method of Rutter et al's ERA study?
Rutter et al followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans who were adopted by UK families
They assessed the participants’ physical, cognitive and emotional development at ages 4, 6, 11, 15 and 22-25
A control group of 52 UK children adopted at the same time was used
100
What were the findings of Rutter et al's ERA study?
When the Romanian children arrived in the UK, half showed signs of delayed intellectual development and the majority were severely undernourished
At age 11, the children’s IQs and other recovery rates were different depending on the age at which they were adopted
The mean IQ for those adopted before 6 months was 102
The mean IQ for those adopted between 6 months and 2 years was 86
The mean IQ for those adopted after 2 years was 77
Those adopted after 6 months showed signs of disinhibited attachment, while those adopted before 6 months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment
101
What was the aim of the Bucharest early intervention project?
To assess attachment in children who had spent most of their lives in institutional care.
102
What was the method of the Bucharest early intervention project?
Zeanah et al assessed attachment in a sample of 95 Romanian children aged 12-31 months who had spent (on average) 90% of their lives in institutional care
The children were compared to a control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution
The attachment types of the children were identified using the Strange Situation
Carers of the children were asked about unusual social behaviour
103
What were the findings of the Bucharest early intervention project?
74% of the control group were securely attached
19% of the institutionalised group were securely attached
44% of the institutionalised group showed signs of disinhibited attachment
less than 20% of the control group showed signs of disinhibited attachment
104
What is disinhibited attachment?
Disinhibited attachment = where children are equally friendly to strangers as to people they know
Disinhibited attachment is a common effect of spending time in an institution
105
What did Rutter say about disinhibited attachment?
Rutter claimed that children develop disinhibited attachment in order to adapt to their circumstances - in the Romanian orphanages, a child could be cared for by up to 50 carers, and none would be with them long enough for the child to form an attachment, so the children learn to behave the same way with everyone
106
How does the date of adoption affect intellectual damage?
If children were adopted before 6 months of age, the intellectual damage can be fully reversed by the time they are 4
In children adopted after 6 months of age, the damage is more permanent
107
Give two strengths of Romanian orphan studies.
The research has real-world applications - it has led to improvements in conditions for looked-after children, such as children’s homes no longer having large numbers of caregivers for one child, which avoid the development of disinhibited attachments
There were no confounding variables - before the Romanian studies, most orphans used in research had experienced trauma which was difficult to separate from institutional care in the studies, but the Romanian children on the whole had not, so the study can be said to have greater internal validity
108
Give three limitations of Romanian orphan studies.
On the other hand, the study could be said to only show the effects of poor institutional care rather than institutional care in general, as the care in Romanian orphanages was particularly poor and children received almost no intellectual stimulation or response to their emotional needs
There is a lack of adult data - the latest data in Rutter’s ERA study focused on the children in their early to mid 20s, meaning that there is no data on the lifetime prevalence of mental health problems in the Romanian orphans or their success in forming and maintaining adult romantic and parental relationships, and it will be a while before such data can be collected
The studies are socially sensitive - because the children were being studied and results published as they were growing up, people in their lives may have treated them differently due to the expectation that they will have poor developmental outcomes
109
What did Kerns find about the influence of early attachment on childhood relationships?
Kerns (1994) found that securely attached babies will have good quality childhood friendships while insecurely attached babies will have friendship difficulties.
110
What did Myron-Wilson and Smith find about the influence of early attachment on childhood relationships?
Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998) found using a questionnaire that securely attached children were unlikely to be involved in bullying, insecure-avoidant children were more likely to be victims of bullying and insecure-resistant children were more likely to be bullies themselves.
111
What did Hazan and Shaver find about the influence of early attachment on adult relationships?
Hazan and Shaver (1997) used a quiz in the newspaper to assess the association between attachment and adult relationships, finding that 56% of respondents were securely attached, 25% insecure-avoidant and 19% insecure-resistant. Hazan and Shaver found that securely attached respondents had good, long-lasting romantic relationships, while insecure-avoidant respondents reported fear of intimacy, suggesting that patterns of attachment behaviour are reflected in romantic relationships.
112
What did McCarthy find about the influence of early attachment on adult relationships?
McCarthy (1999) studied 40 adult women whose attachment styles had been identified as babies. McCarthy found that those identified as securely attached had the best friendships and relationships, those identified as insecure-resistant struggled to maintain friendships and those identified as insecure-avoidant struggled with intimacy in romantic relationships.
113
What did Bailey et al find about the influence of early attachment on parental relationships?
Bailey et al found that attachment styles tend to be passed on through families due to the internal working model.
114
Give a strength of studies into the influence of early attachment on later relationships.
There is strong research support for these conclusions - reviews of studies linking attachment to later development have concluded that early attachment consistently predicts later attachment, emotional wellbeing and attachment to one’s children.
115
Give four limitations of studies into the influence of early attachment on later relationships.
Becker-Stoll et al (2008) found no evidence of continuity, meaning that it is not clear to what extent early attachment can predict later development
There are validity issues with assessing attachment retrospectively - most attachment research is not longitudinal, so participants are asked about their relationship with their parents, which can lead to problems with honesty of participants, and a possibility that it is adult attachment being assessed rather than early attachment
There are confounding variables, such as parenting style and genetically-influenced personality
It is likely that the influence of early attachment is probabilistic, so knowing someone has an insecure attachment could lead to pessimism potentially causing the attachment style to persist into adulthood
