Topic 3 - Skill Acquisition Flashcards
(53 cards)
If you were watching a number of performers in sport, what characteristics would you expect the movements of a skilled performer to have? [4 marks]
Answer:
• Movement seems effortless.
• There are many correct movements consistently performed.
• The movement follows a technical model.
• The movement is aesthetically pleasing.
• The movement is controlled and well co-ordinated.
By using examples from sport, explain what is meant by fundamental psychomotor skills and why they are so important. [4 marks]
Answer:
• Jumping, catching, throwing etc.
• Basis for the development of other skills.
• Learned through early experiences usually via play.
• Important because can draw on them for lifetime sports or healthy lifestyles.
• Helps personal development and self-esteem.
Why is the shot put often regarded as a closed skill? [2 marks]
Answer: • Tends to be an habitual response. • Little reference to the environment. • There is a definite beginning and end. • More self-paced than externally-paced.
Using passing skills in a team game, explain what is meant by an open skill. [4 marks]
Answer:
• When passing a soccer ball you need to take into account any challenge from your opponents.
• You need to refer to where your team mate is when passing a netball.
• You need to process a great deal of information regarding speed of passing the ball in hockey and the direction of the pass.
• When passing the ball in rugby the speed at which you pass is often dictated by how quickly you are being closed-down.
Give one example from sport of each of the following and state why you have chosen your example: continuous skills, serial skills, discrete skills. [3 marks]
Answer:
• Continuous skill: cycling - because the subroutines of the pedaling action are not easily separated.
• Serial skill: triple jump - because there are a number of discrete elements linked together to make up the whole skill.
• Discrete skill: forward roll - because there is a definite beginning and a definite end to the skill.
Explain how your profile for the table tennis serve might assist a coach in planning practices for players learning this skill. [5 marks]
Answer:
• The coach should look at the position of the skill in each continuum to see if it will tell him or her something about how to organise the practices.
Continuity:
• Because the skill is discrete, it can be practised in isolation from other aspects of the game.
• It should be practised sufficiently to enable accuracy and consistency to develop.
Pacing:
• Because the skill is internally paced, the coach should encourage beginners to take their own time in executing the skill.
• And to adopt a set routine or mental set for the technique.
Environmental influence:
• Although the serve is relatively ‘closed’, it can be affected by temperature of the playing hall, and pressure of the of the event.
• Which means that the player should be exposed to practice in this variety of environmental conditions in order to be best prepared for him or her in the competitive situation.
Explain four different types of transfer of learning. [4 marks]
Any four from:
• Positive transfer is one skill helping the learning or performance of another.
• Negative transfer is one skill hindering the learning or performance of another skill.
• Bi-Iateral transfer is the transfer of learning or performance from limb to limb.
• Retroactive transfer is the influence of a skill being learned on a previously learned skill.
• Proactive transfer is the influence of a skill being learned on future skills, a skill learned in the past has an influence on a present skill.
Using a practical example, explain what is meant by the term ‘transfer’ in skill learning. How can transfer be detrimental to performance? Give a practical example. [5 marks]
Answer:
Transfer in skill learning:
• The influence of the learning or performance of one skill on the learning or performance of another skill.
• If you perform one skill and then perform another, the second may well be affected by the first.
• For example, you perform a push pass in hockey and then you perform a flick, the actions of the first skill may help that of the second (positive transfer).
Detrimental to performance:
• The performance of one skill may well hinder the performance of another.
• Because there may well be inappropriate movements or information processing which could confuse the performer.
• For example, a badminton player may play tennis immediately after playing badminton and the forehand in tennis may be far too ‘wristy’ because of the confusion in the response.
How can a teacher or a coach ensure that as much positive transfer takes place as possible in a training session? [5 marks]
Answer:
5 marks for 5 of:
• The coach uses as many different practices as possible in training – drills are varied.
• Emphasise the transferable elements of the skills.
• Tell performers about transfer to heighten awareness.
• To ensure the building of schema.
• Make sure training is relevant to the ‘real’ game.
• Environmental conditions need to be similar.
• Tactics, strategies and information processing elements need to be similar.
• Avoid confusing practices to avoid negative transfer.
• Ensure that skills are thoroughly learned before moving on to other skills.
• Give distributed practice sessions in which there are rest intervals for mental assimilation.
• Positive previous experiences or values assist transfer.
Identify the characteristics of a performer in the autonomous stage of skill development. [4 marks]
Answer:
• Almost automatic in movements.
• Seems confident or has predetermined goals.
• More likely to complete complex movements.
• Is successful consistently.
• Less likely to lose concentration and so is focused.
• Advanced performers will only stay in this phase if they keep referring back to the associative phase or keep practising.
How might the type of mental practice change in the last phase of learning? [4 marks]
Answer:
• Concentrating on only very few stimuli or very selective in attention.
• Less about skill performance, more on keeping calm and controlling arousal.
• Utilising imagery of the sequences as part of the warm-up.
• Visualising success more than other phases.
• Thinking more about tactics or strategies.
According to Fitts and Posner, learning passes through three stages. Use an example from one of your practical activities to describe the key characteristics of each of these stages. [5 marks]
Answer:
Select your practical activity.
Stage 1: cognitive
• Learner is using trial and error learning.
• Getting an idea of the skill.
• Many mistakes made.
• Movement is inconsistent.
• Movement lacks fluency
• Performer concentrates on every aspect of the movement.
Stage 2: associative
• Movement is smoother.
• Subroutines linked.
• Performer can use kinaesthetic feedback.
• Motor programmes are formed.
• Practice required and awareness of mistakes.
Stage 3: autonomous
• Movements are automatic.
• No conscious thought or attention required.
• Tactics and strategies can be focused on.
• Reaction time is reduced.
• Detailed external feedback can be used.
• Errors can be detected and corrected without help.
• Must practise to remain in this stage.
• Fluent, flowing.
Explain how you would use operant conditioning to teach a sports skill of your choice. [5 marks]
Answer:
• Operant conditioning is shaping behaviour by reinforcement.
• The sportsperson has a go at the sport, and the correct effort is reinforced, and the incorrect effort is negatively reinforced.
• This is done by the teacher praising success, and hence giving the sportsperson a feeling of well-being when success is achieved.
• When an incorrect effort is achieved, praise is withdrawn or not given.
• So the sportsperson learns to associate (connect) praise (and well-being – the stimulus) with a correct effort (the response).
• This is called the stimulus-response bond.
• The sportsperson is learning by trial and error.
• Eventually, incorrect responses will disappear, because the person wants to feel good.
• This process can be extended by showing the sportsperson how to perform the activity, this is called shaping, then the correct shape is reinforced (rather than just the shuttle going over the net as in badminton).
• For example, to teach a high long serve in badminton.
• Give demonstration (shaping).
• Get opponent to stand in service box opposite with racket held high (shaping).
• Give targets to aim for (shaping) – aim to get the shuttle over the opponent’s head.
• Give knowledge of results (reinforcement) – did the shuttle pass over the opponent’s head and land inside the baseline?
• Give feedback about performance (reinforcement) – was the shot performed with the correct wrist movement?
• Give praise (reinforcement).
Describe what is meant by reinforcement and give examples of different types. [4 marks]
Answer:
• Reinforcement is the manipulation of a stimulus to ensure that a response recurs.
• For example, positive reinforcement - giving praise when a swimmer wins a race.
• For example, negative reinforcement - taking away the praise if the swimmer subsequently loses.
• For example, punishment - telling the swimmer off for not trying very hard if he or she loses the race.
Using examples from sport explain what is meant by the S-R bond. [4 marks]
Answer:
• A certain response is connected to a certain stimulus. For example, a forehand is hit by a right-handed player because the ball appears on the right hand side of the player’s body.
• The stimulus acts as a cue to be associated with a response. For example, in volleyball a player will jump to block a ball being smashed across the net by the opposition.
• The response is almost automatic because the bond is so great between stimulus and response.
• For example, a ‘reflex’ save by a goalkeeper to a shot on goal.
• Or a sprinter driving out of the blocks when the gun goes.
• The bond (link) is strengthened by reinforcing correct responses – giving praise for correct responses, and withdrawing praise or giving punishment for incorrect responses.
Explain how a coach in a sport could ensure that a correct response follows a particular stimulus. [5 marks]
Answer:
• Give praise or positive reinforcement.
• Give feedback or give direct knowledge about what to do.
• Give satisfaction if movement is correct (Thorndike’s Law of Effect).
• Give negative reinforcement (withdraw praise) if movement is incorrect.
• Give punishment if movement is incorrect.
• Repeat the correct movement to establish a motor programme.
Stimulus-response bonding has been used to explain how a physical skill can be learned. What is a stimulus-response bond and how can a Physical Education teacher ensure that it is strengthened when teaching swimming or athletics? [6 marks]
Answer:
Definition of S-R bond:
• Performer learns to link a particular response to a particular stimulus.
• For example, the starter’s gun in swimming (stimulus) triggers the swimmer’s movement (response) from the blocks or poolside.
Strengthening the S-R bond:
• Must use swimming or athletics example.
• Use reinforcement, praise or punishment to ensure that the person is made to feel good about the correct response, and bad about an incorrect response.
Thorndike’s Law of Readiness:
• A performer must be mentally and physically able to do the task.
• For example, a learner swimmer must want to and be physically capable of trying butterfly if she is to master the stroke.
• For example, an 11 year old boy will be physically incapable of performing a slam dunk in basketball.
Thorndike’s Law of Exercise:
• Practice of the task will strengthen the S-R connections.
• For example, the athlete has frequent attempts at the sprint start.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
• If the response is followed by satisfaction or positive feedback (a ‘satisfier’), the bond is strengthened.
• If the response is followed by an intense emotional feeling (of well-being) the bond is strengthened.
• For example, the swimmer who feels pride after doing 25m for the first time.
• If the response is followed by an ‘annoyer’ or negative feedback, the bond is weakened.
• For example, a young high jumper who repeatedly knocks the bar off because the bar is too high.
• Positive reinforcement, Reward or Praise:
• Operant conditioning or shaping increases the chance of the behaviour occurring again.
• For example, the swimmer gains a badge for completing 25m.
• Negative reinforcement:
• The behaviour is likely to be repeated when a stimulus is withdrawn.
• For example, no-one makes fun of the pupil who usually comes last when he or she achieves a better placing.
• Punishment:
• The stimulus given prevents a particular response occurring.
• For example, a pupil is made to perform an extra lap of the track for unsafe behaviour in the javelin lesson.
A coach reinforces good performances in training with praise. Why does this reinforcement work rather than punishing poor performance? Explain what is meant by reinforcement and punishment in this case. [5 marks]
Answer:
• Reinforcement works because the praise (giving a pleasant experience) to the performer will enhance and give motivation to the performer to repeat the good performance.
• The S-R bond is enhanced.
• Punishment of a poor performance (giving an unpleasant experience) has the chance that the person could be demotivated by the activity.
• And good performances never attained.
What is meant by reinforcement?
• Reinforcement is the giving of pleasant experiences for good performances to attempt to enhance the S-R bond and stimulate the correct response.
What is meant by punishment?
• Punishment is the giving of unpleasant experiences for poor responses or performances.
• This is an attempt to make a performer reject an undesirable response.
• And hence try harder to attain a correct response.
Explain the difference between massed and distributed practice. [2 marks]
Answer:
• Massed - no rest intervals hence practice conditions of long duration.
• Distributed - rest intervals at regular periods of time during a session.
Justify the choice of practice conditions for a training session of a sport of your choice. [6 marks]
Massed:
• To ensure motor programmes are learned (overlearning).
• To encourage an habitual response.
• To cut down on response or reaction time.
• Good for learning discrete skills.
• Good for skills performed over a short duration, for example, basketball shots.
• But can lead to fatigue, boredom or demotivation.
Distributed:
• To give physical rest or recuperation.
• To give mental rest or gather thoughts.
• To relieve stress.
• Provides safety for dangerous activities.
Name two characteristics of the task, and two attributes of the learner which might lead you to decide which method (massed or distributed) of practice to use. [4 marks]
Answer:
Two characteristics of the task from the following:
• Whether the skill was complex and lengthy or short and discrete.
• Whether the task required great fitness levels.
• Whether the task was dangerous or not.
Two attributes from the learner:
• The motivation levels of the learner.
• The personality of the learner (whether or not he or she would be prepared to persist in the learning task).
Make sure you use the above answer in relation to a sport or game of your choice.
Generally a skill should be taught as a whole as far as possible. Give reasons for this. Some skills need to be split up into parts to be taught effectively. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this type of skill presentation. [12 marks]
Answer:
Teaching skill as a whole:
• The performer can appreciate skill in its entirety.
• Has overall kinaesthetic sense of the skill.
• The flow of the skill is not interfered with.
• Much more efficient in skill learning and is therefore quicker to learn.
• Can help understanding and hence the cognitive development of the performer.
Splitting into parts:
Advantages:
• Useful if skill is dangerous and will lower fear level.
• Good for complex or difficult skills.
• Good for serial skills.
• Gives success at each stage and less likely to fail overall skill.
• Helps confidence and motivation.
Disadvantages:
• Transfer of movements from the part skill to the whole may not work.
• Some skills cannot be split up into subroutines very easily.
• Loses the overall kinaesthetic sense.
• Loses the flow of the skill.
• Takes up too much time.
Using Thorndike’s laws, discuss how producing a satisfying effect in a particular situation becomes more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation. [15 marks]
Answer:
• Reinforcement is the process of increasing behaviour by giving satisfaction to the learner.
• That can be positive such as praise and rewards to achieve the desired result.
• And negative by removing an unpleasant experience in order to increase the likelihood of the desired response being repeated.
• Thorndike’s three laws are concerned with strengthening the S-R bond, and hence the concept of reinforcement that is particularly importance to skill development.
• The law of readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness.
• Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn.
• And do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.
• This law says that learning can only occur when the nervous system (and muscular system) is sufficiently mature to allow the appropriate S-R bond to happen.
• For example, the more a thrower is physically and mentally prepared to perform a throw then it is more likely to be performed well.
• Individuals should learn simple basic skills (and become basically fit) before attempting to learn more complex skills.
• The law of readiness includes mental readiness.
• Participants learn best when they really want to acquire the skill.
• Have a clear understanding of the requirements of the task.
• Know and accept why they are practising the task.
• The law of exercise explains that repetition strengthens the S-R bond.
• It forms the basis of drill and practice.
• Learning occurs when a particular response has an effect on the person i.e. when the response is reinforced.
• For example, the more a discus thrower practises throwing the more likely it is that this correct throwing technique will be repeated in the competitive situation.
• So practice is very important.
• The law of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the learner.
• It has a direct relationship to motivation.
• The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by pleasant and satisfying feeling.
• And that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
• It uses reinforcement (by praise, reward or observed success) to strengthen the S-R bond.
• Satisfying reinforcers (ones which make the learner feel good) increase the likelihood of a response being repeated.
• Thus, to enable early success it is important for a coach to use positive feedback to reinforce correct attempts.
• For example, if the thrower feels that the movement is correct then he or she is more likely to repeat the movement.
• Failure in a task can also act as negative reinforcement because it producing the opposite effect of satisfaction annoyance or discomfort.
• A trial and error process can produce this effect, since success reinforces a response, whereas failure forces the performer to try new methods to achieve success.
Why is visual guidance particularly suitable for learning a new skill? [2 marks]
Answer:
• Provides learner with a mental image of the skill.
• In terms of sequencing or timing of the movement.
• Draws attention to key points such as cues.
