Trade Union And Labour Rights

Question 1

How did violence in strikes limit the power of unions (Gilded Age 1875-1895)?

Answer 1

Violence in strikes such as the Haymarket Affair (1886) and the Homestead Strike (1892) encouraged dislike of unions and as a result union membership decreased from 700,000 in 1886 to 100,000 in 1890.
KOL’s reputation was destroyed after the Haymarket Affair.

Question 2

How did the Supreme Court limit the power of unions (Gilded Age 1875-1895)?

Answer 2

The Supreme Court legalised the use of injunctions and issued the Omnibus Indictment Act which prohibited strikers’ and workers’ representatives from trying to persuade others to strike, which remained in force until the 1935 Wagner Act.

Question 3

What was union membership like during the Gilded Age (1875-1895)?

Answer 3

Union membership was small - only white males and skilled workers in craft industries were allowed.
KOL had 700,000 members by 1886 compared to ~2 million union members by WW1.
New unskilled workers were excluded from unions so had no representation or protection.

Question 4

How did workforce divisions slow progress during the Gilded Age (1875-1895)?

Answer 4

Divisions within the workforce could be exploited by employers who used some of the potential labour to break strikes.

Question 5

What were workplace conditions like during the Gilded Age (1875-1895)?

Answer 5

Many worked long hours in dangerous conditions.
~2,000 rail workers were killed in accidents in 1889.

Question 6

How did the government limit progress during the Gilded Age (1875-1895)?

Answer 6

Didn’t support the position of workers.
Courts decided that industrial injury was a risk that workers had to take.
Government adopted laissez-faire policy.
Government supported Pullman in 1894 Pullman Strike and President Cleveland sent in 2,000 federal troops to break the strike.
Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890 - outlawed monopolistic business practices.

Question 7

What gains had been made by the end of the Gilded Age (1875-1895)?

Answer 7

By 1892, there was the right to join a union, right to collective bargaining and right for workers to withdraw their labour and go on strike.
Limited in practice - eg some employers brought in no-strike clauses.

Question 8

What were wages like during the Gilded Age (1875-1895)?

Answer 8

2% of the population earned 30% of the country’s wealth.
Many new workers were unskilled and paid only 30% of the wages of skilled workers.

Question 9

How did the position of unions and workers improve during the First World War (1914-1918)?

Answer 9

There was an increased demand for products which meant more opportunity to increase profits - employers were more willing to be conciliatory towards their workers.
However, gains were only temporary.

Question 10

How did workforce unity increase during the First World War (1914-1918)?

Answer 10

Due to a shortage of labour caused by recruitment to the armed forces and the halting of immigration, many women, African Americans and Native Americans who’d been excluded from the workforce found employment.
However, white workers still pushed out black workers - Memphis railroad ‘race strike’ in 1919.

Question 11

How did employment change during the First World War (1914-1918)?

Answer 11

Over 1 million new labourers were needed for industry and agriculture due to government war contracts.
Female employment increased from 23.6% to 37.7% during the war.

Question 12

How did the government strengthen labour rights during the First World War (1914-1918)?

Answer 12

To ensure production was maintained, the government recognised and negotiated with unions through the NWLB - as a result, the length of working hours was limited to 8 but in return, workers agreed to a no-strike policy.
Government pressed for overtime pay and the enforcement of the federal ban on child labour.
1914 Clayton Anti-Trust Act - limited the use of injunctions against striking workers and allowed for peaceful picketing.
However the NWLB gave the president (Wilson) the power to take control of factories where strike action threatened the war effort.

Question 13

How did wages increase during the First World War (1914-1918)?

Answer 13

Rise in real wages - rose by 20% during WW1.

Question 14

Why did strike action increase after the First World War (1914-1918)?

Answer 14

1919 - over 3,300 strikes involving over 4 million workers took place.
US Labour Department reported strikes in 24 states due to renewed economic hardship.

Question 15

What were benefits made in return for in the 1920s?

Answer 15

Benefits were made in return for no-strike agreements and abandoning the right to negotiate wages as employers feared that workers would take advantage of the low rates of unemployment to demand more money.

Question 16

What did Randolph set up in the 1920s and was it successful?

Answer 16

Randolph set up the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters to attempt to gain rights for African American porters.
However by 1928, they’d not gained any rights despite nearly half of all African Americans having joined.
The Pullman Company countered and established its own union and banned meetings of the BSCP.

Question 17

What were yellow-dog contracts (1920s)?

Answer 17

Contracts signed by workers whereby they agreed not to join a union.

Question 18

How did big companies limit unions in the 1920s?

Answer 18

Ford and other big companies refused to recognise unions - took until 1941 before he’d recognise any union for collective bargaining.

Question 19

Why was government intervention limited in the 1920s?

Answer 19

Adopted a laissez-faire policy.
Hoover believed in rugged individualism.

Question 20

What benefits were made in the 1920s?

Answer 20

Real wages increased and there was a decline in unemployment meaning employers could offer benefits like a reduction in working hours, pensions, insurance etc.

Question 21

What was welfare capitalism (1920s)?

Answer 21

A policy followed by employers during the boom of the 1920s to reduce industrial unrest - entailed offering workers improved working conditions/benefits/pensions in return for unions established under the control of employers.

Question 22

What did a 1936 sit-in strike result in during the New Deal (1933-1945)?

Answer 22

1936 sit-in strike resulted in the 1936 recognition of the United Automobile Workers’ Union and then in 1937, the Steel Workers’ Organising Committee was recognised by US Steel.

Question 23

Despite resistance, what happened to some firms during the New Deal (1933-1945)?

Answer 23

Although some firms initially resisted, most, including General Motors (1 of the 3 big car manufacturers and employing over 80,000 workers), were forced to accept the change in circumstances.

Question 24

What was the Congress of Industrial Organisations and what was its aim during the New Deal (1933-1945)?

Answer 24

1935 - Committee of Industrial Organisations was established.
1937 - became Congress of Industrial Organisations.
Encouraged whole-industry unions and encouraged ethnic groups, like African Americans, to join unions.

Question 25

How did union membership increase during the New Deal (1933-1945)?

Answer 25

1935 Wagner Act resulted in the rapid expansion of union membership, rising from 3.7 million in 1935 to 9 million by 1938.

Question 26

What was the National Industrial Recovery Act 1933 (New Deal 1933-1945)?

Answer 26

1933 NIRA encouraged firms to agree to codes of practice, which improved hours, wage rates and union rights. It enshrined in law the right of workers to organise unions and take part in collective bargaining. However, not all employers signed the codes (Henry Ford etc) and the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional, so many gains were reversed in 1935.

Question 27

What was the Wagner Act 1935 (New Deal 1933-1945)?

Answer 27

1935 Wagner Act established National Labour Relations Board, workers given right to elect their own representatives to undertake collective bargaining, right to join unions, banned using spies against unions, recognised role of unions. Declared constitutional by the Supreme Court. However, agricultural workers weren’t given right to join a union until 1960s.

Question 28

What was the National Labour Relations Board (New Deal 1933-1945)?

Answer 28

Set up by 1935 Wagner Act. NLRB negotiated on behalf of workers and prevented companies from using their own unions. It also looked into accusations of unfair labour practices and reached a judgment on issues brought before it.

Question 29

What did the Fair Labour Standards Act 1938 do (New Deal 1933-1945)?

Answer 29

1938 Fair Labour Standards Act gave workers a minimum wage.

Question 30

How was the New Deal 1933-1945 limited?

Answer 30

Improvements only benefitted some workers. Many firms/employers didn’t sign NIRA codes and Ford didn’t recognise the 1933 NIRA or 1935 Wagner Act. Welfare reforms weren’t always successful in helping the position of workers on lower pay due to conflict between state and federal rights.

Question 31

How many workers were involved in strikes 1946-1947 (Second World War 1941-1945)?

Answer 31

1946-1947 over 4.5 million workers were involved in strikes.

Question 32

How did the position and influence of unions change during the Second World War 1941-1945?

Answer 32

As many workers were now so much better off than they had been (having gained paid holidays, healthcare, pensions and pay rises linked to the cost of living), they were much less interested in union activity.

Question 33

How did union membership change during the Second World War 1941-1945?

Answer 33

More workers joined unions - 9 million in 1939 to 15 million by the end of the war. 1945-1950, due to the growth in the number of white-collar workers and decline in the number of blue-collar workers, fewer workers were joining unions and overall membership fell.

Question 34

How did the 1955 AFL and CIO merger impact union rights?

Answer 34

Brought together 85% of union members. At 16 million members, the unions could now bargain over conditions and wages, negotiate contracts, gain medical and dental insurance, negotiate paid holidays, gain pensions and negotiate unemployment insurance.

Question 35

How did government intervention impact union rights during the Second World War 1941-1945?

Answer 35

Just like in WW1, the NWLB gave the President the power to take control of factories where strike action threatened the war effort. 1947 Taft-Hartley Act limited the unions’ power. Increase in jobs in governmental posts with no-strike clauses caused union membership to fall around 1950.

Question 36

How did the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act limit union rights during the Second World War 1941-1945?

Answer 36

It prevented unions from running a closed shop, one union dominating all workers and all workers had to belong to it. Regulated the relationship between unions and employers.

Question 37

How did wages improve during the Second World War 1941-1945?

Answer 37

Wages rose by 70% and unemployment fell. Success in 1948 when workers at General Motors negotiated a pay agreement linked to the cost of living and a pension package.

Question 38

How did union membership change during the 1960s?

Answer 38

Technological changes saw a decline in unions and female employment growth.

Question 39

How did Cesar Chavez impact union rights during the 1960s and 1970s?

Answer 39

Chavez founded the National Farm Workers Association in 1962, which became the United Farm Workers in 1972. In the early 1970s, the UFW organised strikes and boycotts, including the Salad Bowl Strike which was the largest farmworkers’ strike in US history. It won higher wages for those working for lettuce and grape growers. The UFW declined afterwards but in 1975, it secured victory in California when the California Agricultural Labour Relations Act established the California Agricultural Relations Board to oversee collective bargaining for farm labourers.

Question 40

How did union unity and rights change during the 1960s?

Answer 40

There was little doubt as to the right to join a union and unions were now collaborating with employers and confrontations appeared to be in decline. Workers had gained many benefits. Many African Americans had seen little improvement - the demand for skilled workers and technologically advanced workers disadvantaged them - lacked the necessary education. Agricultural workers didn’t benefit.

Question 41

How did government intervention improve union rights during the 1960s?

Answer 41

Workers who lived in poverty or close to the poverty line benefitted from Johnson’s 1964 ‘Great Society’ policy. Although it was primarily an attack on poverty, laws passed under it helped workers in other ways. 1963 Equal Pay Act abolished wage disparity based on sex. 1964 Civil Rights Act outlawed discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. 1964 Economic Opportunity Act increased training opportunities. 1968 Age Discrimination Act protected those over 40 years old.

Question 42

What was pay like during the 1960s?

Answer 42

Union workers’ pay was often 20% higher than that for non-union workers.

Question 43

How did union strength change during Reagan’s presidency (1981-1989)?

Answer 43

The number of days lost to strike action had halved. Employers were able to bring in other non-union workers and therefore restrict the demands that unions were making. Reagan believed the power had swung too far in favour of employees.

Question 44

How was union unity limited during Reagan’s presidency (1981-1989)?

Answer 44

The alienating of different groups of workers (African Americans, unskilled workers, women etc) in earlier time periods meant that employers didn’t have to deal with large numbers of trade union activists. Large numbers would have meant added strength and increased pressure on employers to make concessions, but this didn’t really happen.

Question 45

How did union membership change during Reagan’s presidency (1981-1989)?

Answer 45

Although trade union membership continued to grow until the 1980s, it wasn’t able to attract all workers to its cause which limited its overall impact. By the end of the period, trade union membership had declined from 19,843,000 in 1980 to 16,740,000 in 1990. Growth of white-collar workers, women workers and the decision for some companies to establish factories abroad all contributed to this decline, as did Reagan’s policies.

Question 46

How did government intervention limit unions during Reagan’s presidency (1981-1989)?

Answer 46

Reagan was determined to reduce the power of unions. Aimed to remove restrictive regulations that protected workers but might have hindered US industry. Wanted to privatise public-owned businesses.

Question 47

What was the PATCO strike of 1981?

Answer 47

Air-traffic controllers wanted a reduced 32 hour work week, a $10,000 pay rise and better retirement package. The FAA offered some terms but the ATCs refused them and went on strike. Government cited 1947 Taft-Hartley Act - 1300/13000 workers obeyed Reagan’s order to go back to work. 5th August - Reagan dismissed 11345 ATCs - justified it as they signed no-strike clauses which was in contravention of a 1955 Act which prevented government workers from striking.

Question 48

What were the consequences of the PATCO strike of 1981?

Answer 48

Appointments to the NLRB were made by the president and he ensured that those appointed supported his views and thus ensured that any disputes that went before it were less likely to favour the employer. Union membership fell - people were worried about going on strike and didn’t want to jeopardise their jobs. Took 10 years for staff members to recover to previous levels.