Training Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
Q
What is the main basis for physiological adaptation?
A
Favourable changes in protein structure and quantity
2
Q
Are proteins static in the body?
A
No, they are continually turned over or recycled
3
Q
What determines the number and type of proteins produced?
A
Stress signals from internal and external stimuli. Can either reduce the breakdown or increase the production
4
Q
What are the steps of protein production in response to stress?
A
- Stress signals activate signalling pathways
- Pathways activate transcription factors
- Transcription factors turn genes on/off to produce code for new proteins (mRNA)
- Ribosomes make proteins using mRNA from these genes
- .
5
Q
Name examples of stress signals that drive protein adaptation.
A
- Ca²⁺
- AMP/ATP ratio
- Mechanical tension
- ROS
- Heat
6
Q
Why is signalling necessary for protein synthesis?
A
It initiates the transcription and translation processes
7
Q
What else is required besides signalling to make proteins?
A
- Amino acids
- Usable DNA
- Nuclei
- Ribosomes
8
Q
How long after a stimulus does mRNA peak?
A
Peaks within hours, returns to baseline by ~24 hours
9
Q
How long does it take for new proteins to cause functional changes?
A
Typically takes weeks
10
Q
Are adaptations the same for everyone?
A
No, individual differences are large
11
Q
How does neural adaptation compare to muscular adaptation?
A
Neural adaptations occur faster and are retained longer
12
Q
What are the main training parameters that influence adaptation?
A
- Intensity
- Duration
- Frequency
- Pattern of stress
13
Q
What is needed for adaptive change to occur?
A
Sufficient strain and the presence of metabolic/structural precursors (enzymes, antioxidants, etc.)
14
Q
What is the difference between stress and strain?
A
Stress is the stimulus; strain is the biological response to that stress
15
Q
What factors modulate how an individual adapts to stress?
A
- Genotype & epigenetics
- Age
- Training & clinical status
- Nutrients & meds
- Motivation & resilience
- Ergogenic aids
16
Q
What are novel stressors that can affect adaptation?
A
- Ischemia
- Pharmaceutical hormetics
- Vibration
- Antigens
- Cognitive demands
17
Q
What are environment stressors that can affect adaptation?
A
- Medium and its velocity
- Thermal energy
- Air and vapour pressures
- Gravity
- Energy
- Water
- Protein
- Pathogens and pollutants
- Social
18
Q
What types of strain affect cells during exercise?
A
- Mechanical tension
- Energy substrate depletion
- Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (RONS)
- pH changes
- Temperature
- Hypoxia
- Cell volume shifts
- Cognitive and sensorimotor demands
19
Q
What determines the nature and extent of adaptation?
A
- Exercise parameters (FITT)
- Personal factors (e.g., genes, age)
- Diet
- Interference from other stimuli
20
Q
How do FITT variables affect adaptation?
A
They determine the type and intensity of stress signals, which shape the resulting adaptation
21
Q
How do genetics influence adaptation?
A
Thousands of gene differences affect protein coding and adaptation potential
22
Q
How does sex impact protein adaptation?
A
Through differences in anabolic hormones like testosterone and estrogen
23
Q
How does age affect adaptation?
A
- Children have lower anabolic hormone levels
- Older adults have reduced cell signalling and increased inflammation
24
Q
How does clinical status affect adaptation?
A
Some diseases can increase or decrease protein synthesis and affect connective tissue production
25
Why is diet important for adaptation?
It provides substrates like amino acids necessary for new protein synthesis
26
What are examples of interference in training adaptation?
- Time conflicts (e.g., strength vs endurance, training vs recovery)
- Morphological effects (e.g., hypertrophy vs endurance)
- Signalling pathway interference (e.g., endurance signals inhibit hypertrophy pathways)
27
What causes dilution effects during training adaptation?
- Exchange of substances in and out of blood
- Relative area of contractile vs mitochondrial proteins
28
What is the impact of added mass?
Increased inertia and energy cost; more glycogen used and greater thermal load
29
How does heat production interfere with endurance?
It increases SNS activation, dehydration, and makes heat removal harder, reducing endurance
30
How can endurance training interfere with resistance training?
It activates pathways that inhibit hypertrophy
31
What is the suggested order for concurrent training?
Do resistance training last to reduce interference
32
Can interference ever be beneficial?
Yes — you may gain neural adaptations without hypertrophy
33
What defines a quality training session?
One that balances load (stress) with optimal strain (response), possibly minimizes interference, and aligns with training goals
34
Is minimising interference part of periodisation?
Yes, effective periodisation considers timing, signalling, and physiological demand
35
Why is recovery important for adaptation?
Anabolic processes require time and resources like energy, oxygen, and amino acids
36
What happens during recovery between sets?
Replenishment of phosphagens (esp. Type IIx fibres) and reduction of H⁺ ions
37
What happens during recovery between sessions?
Protein remodelling, inflammation resolution, and glycogen restoration
38
What affects recovery quality?
Exercise type, personal and environment
39
What key elements support recovery?
- O₂: for phosphagen replenishment
- Glucose: for glycogen resynthesis (insulin-independent)
- Protein: for muscle and enzyme repair
- Essential amino acids: in addition to those from glycolysis and TCA cycle
40
Why think critically about recovery methods?
Some methods may not be necessary or effective depending on training goals
41
What is muscular strength?
The maximum force a muscle or muscle group can generate through a full range of motion, typically in one maximal voluntary contraction (1RM), usually at a slow velocity
42
What does strength depend on?
Both internal muscle factors (e.g., muscle mass) and external factors (e.g., nervous system activation)
43
Is strength highly transferable between different muscle groups or movement types?
No, strength is relatively specific with little transfer between different muscle groups or movement types (especially slow to fast)
44
What is a primary determinant of strength?
Muscle mass (both absolute and relative to body mass)
45
What are ways to generate more muscular force?
Use larger muscles, recruit more motor units (especially fast, strong fibers), increase motor unit firing frequency, and reduce co-contraction of antagonists
46
What is the difference between strength, power, and endurance?
- Strength = how much force;
- Power = how fast force is produced (F*v);
- Endurance = how long force can be sustained
47
Why is strength important?
- For health
- Sport performance
- Occupation
- Rehabilitation
- Quality of life (especially in the elderly)
48
How does resistance exercise benefit health?
Improves blood glucose and insulin regulation, reduces blood pressure, decreases protein breakdown, and increases synthesis
49
Why measure strength?
- To assess function
- Guide training/rehab
- Monitor progress
- Identify muscle imbalances
50
What tools measure strength?
- Tensiometers (isometric)
- Resistance machines
- Free weights
- Isokinetic dynamometers
- 1RM tests
51
What are the two main mechanisms that increase strength during resistance training?
Neural adaptations and muscle hypertrophy
52
What's the advantage/disadvantage of using isokinetic dynamometer?
- Gives very precise info
- Safe
- Reliable
- Specific velocities and ranges; can have poor validity
53
What's the advantage/disadvantage of using 1RM?
- Common
- Often isotonic but not isokinetic (dynamic, fixed resistance)
- Not always feasible or appropriate to measure actual 1RM
54
What is hypertrophy? (2 different definitions)
- The increase in muscle cell size and number of myofibrils due to protein synthesis exceeding breakdown
- The increase and growth of muscle cells, resulting in increased cross-sectional area and strength
55
What triggers hypertrophy?
Mechanical stress, metabolic factors, hormones like IGF-1, and appropriate resistance exercise
56
Do muscles increase in size due to hyperplasia?
No significant hyperplasia occurs; hypertrophy (increased size and number of myofibrils) is the primary adaptation
57
What role do satellite cells play in hypertrophy?
They proliferate in response to growth factors and help increase the number of nuclei in muscle fibers, aiding growth
58
Why can hypertrophic response vary?
Due to genetic, age-related, and intra-individual differences, as well as interference effects and training type
59
What are other local adaptations to resistance training?
- Increased connective tissue strength
- Bone mineral content
- Phosphagen enzymes
- Decreased capillary/mitochondrial density
60
What is the recommended protein intake to support hypertrophy?
Around 1.6 g/kg/day (for young, well-trained adults)
61
What key questions should be asked during a needs analysis?
- What are you trying to change? Why?
- What is the outcome?
- Who are you trying to change?
62
What is strength?
The ability to apply force maximally
63
Why is strength training important for athletes?
Increases performance, recruits high threshold motor units, improves neuromuscular coordination, and lays the foundation for power
64
Why is strength important for clinical purposes?
To improve your quality of life
65
What are key determinants of strength and power?
- Leverage/moment arms
- Muscle size/architecture
- Neuromuscular activation
- Fibre type
66
Which determinants of strength can be changed with prescription/training?
Muscle size, neural activation, and partially fibre type
67
What are typical hypertrophy training guidelines?
1–3 sets × 8–12 reps at 70–85% 1RM, ~1 minute rest between sets
68
What are the core principles of training?
- Overload
- Progression
- Recovery
- Specificity
- Reversibility
- Individuality
- Consistency
69
What does the specificity principle state?
Training adaptations are specific to the movement pattern, velocity, posture, and ROM used
70
Why might some coaches downplay specificity in strength training?
They focus on general strength/power gains in the gym, transferring them through sport-specific practice
71
What is the interference effect in training?
Conflict between strength and endurance adaptations when trained concurrently
72
How can interference be minimised?
Prioritise individual needs, sequence fitness components wisely, and optimise timing
73
Why is individuality important in strength training?
Each athlete responds differently based on training age, recovery, mental state, maturity, and injury history
74
What is training essentially described as in the context of individuality?
An educated hypothesis and ongoing experiment
75
What’s the implication of the overshoot effect in-season?
Strategic reduction in training can maintain performance (e.g., strength touches every 10–14 days)
76
What variables influence overload?
- Frequency
- Intensity (%1RM)
- Contraction type
- Volume
- Density
77
How are volume and intensity related?
They are inversely proportional - higher intensity usually means lower volume
78
What is periodisation?
Dividing training into time blocks with specific goals to make training an objective process
79
What are the common types of cycles in periodisation?
- Macrocycle (long-term)
- Mesocycle (4–6 weeks)
- Microcycle (weekly)
80
What is responsible for much of the strength gain in the first few weeks of training?
Neural adaptation
81
Neural adaptation especially increases what early performance metric?
Rate of Force Development (RFD)
82
Name two neural mechanisms that increase agonist activation.
- Reduced neural inhibitory reflexes
- Increased motor unit recruitment and/or firing frequency
83
What reflex mechanisms are modified with training to improve agonist-antagonist control?
- Stretch reflex
- Golgi tendon organ reflex
84
How does the stretch reflex contribute to force output?
It primes the muscle for contraction, enhancing activation and RFD during the stretch-shortening cycle
85
What is the role of the Golgi tendon organ?
It inhibits muscle contraction to prevent excessive force, but this can be down regulated with high-impact training
86
What type of training specifically uses the stretch-shortening cycle to improve power?
Plyometrics (jump training)
87
List three benefits of plyometric training.
- Increases tolerance to high-stretch loads
- Enhances stored elastic energy use
- Improves speed, power, and RFD
88
Name three neuromuscular adaptations to high-intensity training.
- Increased strength and power
- Selective hypertrophy of Type II fibers
- Increased neural activation (RFD)
89
Which metabolic enzymes and substrates increase with high-intensity training?
- ATP & PC stores
- Creatine kinase
- ATPase
- Phosphofructokinase (PFK)
- Buffering capacity
90
Do anaerobic enzymes adapt more or less than aerobic ones with training?
Less (only increase by 20–40%)
91
What other benefits come from short-duration, high-intensity training?
- Improved movement efficiency
- Increased pain tolerance
- Increased motivation
- Enhanced motor learning
92
How does resistance training protect against ageing effects?
Maintains strength, reduces fall risk, supports glucose and blood pressure control, and preserves force control
93
Do older adults show the same relative strength gains as younger people with training?
Yes, similar relative (%) gains despite lower absolute gains
94
What are the main adaptations to strength training in terms of timing?
Neural adaptations occur earlier; muscle (hypertrophy) adaptations occur later
95
What is the primary muscular adaptation to strength training?
Hypertrophy
96
Why should varied resistance and repetition schemes be used in strength training?
To target different aspects like speed, power, and RFD, and to accommodate individual genetic responses
97
What are the main reasons aerobic fitness is important?
- Health & Wellness
- Sport performance (endurance, team sports, recovery)
- Occupational performance (e.g., industry)
- Recreation
- Functioning in extreme environments (e.g., heat, altitude, space)
98
Name conditions aerobic fitness helps prevent or treat.
- Cancers
- Insulin resistance & Type 2 Diabetes
- Coronary Heart Disease
- Hypertension
- Depression
- Dementia
- Osteoporosis
- Obesity
99
What are the 4 main ways to increase aerobic fitness?
- Increase VO₂max
- Raise anaerobic threshold
- Improve exercise economy
- Enhance endurance capacity
100
Which adapts faster: VO₂max or anaerobic threshold?
Anaerobic threshold increases more slowly but gives greater long-term endurance benefits than VO₂max
101
Why measure VO₂max?
- Predicts endurance performance
- Reflects capacity of major physiological systems
- Used in exercise prescription
- Indicates readiness for surgery
- Helps monitor training effects
102
What are common criteria for confirming VO₂max in a test?
- Fatigue
- VO₂ plateau
- HR within 10 bpm of max (220-age or 208 – 0.7×age)
- RER > 1.10
- RPE ≥ 18/20
103
What is meant by 'exercise threshold'?
- Max sustainable pace (e.g., 30 min)
- Determined by ventilatory or lactate thresholds
- Linked to recruitment of Type I (slow oxidative) fibers
104
Why is exercise economy important?
- Less O₂ & energy needed at same work rate
- Lowers heat load, dehydration, glycolysis
- Key performance factor among similarly trained athletes
105
What are central factors that improve with aerobic training?
- ↑ Stroke volume
- ↑ Ventricular compliance & contractility
- ↓ Resting & submaximal HR
- ↑ Blood volume & venous return
- ↑ Oxygen carrying capacity
106
What adaptations occur in the heart from aerobic training?
- ↑ LV volume and mass
- ↑ EDV and contractility
- ↑ Compliance and relaxation rate
- ↑ Capillarisation & antioxidant capacity
107
Why is lower resting heart rate beneficial?
- More time for filling → ↑ Stroke Volume
- Lower O₂ & energy demand
- Greater Heart Rate Reserve
108
Is ventilation trainable?
- Yes: Lower VE at submax (more efficient breathing), ↑ respiratory muscle endurance
- No: Max ventilation does not increase significantly (except in elite athletes or with disorders)
109
What factors influence oxygen delivery?
- Alveolar ventilation
- Cardiac output
- Oxygen carrying capacity
- Capacity of arteries and arterioles
- Capillarisation
110
Do lungs adapt directly to aerobic training?
No; only respiratory muscles become more fatigue-resistant. Lung structure itself doesn’t adapt
111
What local heart changes increase stroke volume with aerobic training?
- ↑ Left ventricular capacity → ↑ EDV
- ↑ LV mass (~20%) → ↑ contractility
- ↑ Compliance → faster relaxation and easier filling
- ↑ Capillarisation and antioxidant capacity
112
How does antioxidant capacity help the heart?
Antioxidants help the heart by reducing oxidative stress, which can damage blood vessels and increase the risk of heart disease.
113
What are the types of hypertrophy due to training?
- Concentric hypertrophy (↑ wall thickness): due to pressure overload
- Eccentric hypertrophy (↑ volume): due to volume overload
114
Which sports typically show both high ventricular wall thickness and high volume?
Endurance sports like rowing, cross-country skiing, and water polo
115
What training intensity most effectively increases ventricular contractility and cardiac output?
90% VO₂max and repeated high-intensity efforts (HIT: 85–100% VO₂max)
116
What external factors increase stroke volume?
- ↑ Preload: from ↑ blood volume & venous return
- ↓ Afterload: due to ↓ total peripheral resistance (TPR) and ↓ resting SNS
- ↑ Contractility
- ↑ Filling time (from ↓ HR)
- .
117
How does afterload decrease with training?
- ↓ Arterial BP
- ↑ Arterial compliance
- ↑ Capillarisation and arteriole reactivity
- Improved endothelial function
118
How does the Frank-Starling law relate to aerobic training?
↑ Preload stretches the heart more, resulting in a stronger contraction and greater SV
119
How does heart rate change with training?
- ↓ HR at rest and submaximal intensities
- HRmax stays the same
- ↑ HR Reserve (HRmax – HRrest)
120
What causes lower resting HR with training?
- ↑ Parasympathetic nervous system activity
- ↓ Sympathetic nervous system activity
121
Why is lower resting HR beneficial?
- More time for ventricular filling → ↑ SV
- Lower oxygen and energy cost
- Greater HR reserve = better response range during exercise
122
What mainly limits VO₂max?
- Oxygen delivery capacity (central factors):
- Left ventricular volume
- Red blood cell mass
- Cardiac output
123
What mainly limits submaximal endurance?
- Muscle (peripheral) factors:
- Mitochondrial content
- Capillarisation
- Enzymatic efficiency
124
How much can VO₂max and endurance improve with training?
- VO₂max: ~5–30%
- Endurance: ≥300%
125
Why don’t lungs show structural adaptations to training?
They’re already oversized for most exercise demands; only the respiratory muscles become more fatigue-resistant
126
What is the equation for VO₂?
VO₂ = Cardiac Output (Qc) × a-vO₂ difference
127
What two main components influence VO₂?
Oxygen delivery and oxygen extraction
128
What are the components of blood volume (BV)?
Plasma volume (PV) and red cell volume (RCV)
129
What are the benefits of increased plasma volume (PV) with training?
- ↑ Venous return,
- ↑ stroke volume,
- Better thermoregulation
- Offset increased viscosity of increased RBC
- Measurable within 1 day
130
What are the benefits of increased red cell volume (RCV) with training?
- ↑ O₂ delivery
- ↓ demand for peripheral blood flow
- Takes ~3 weeks to become measurable
131
What is “athletic anaemia”?
A temporary dilution of red blood cells due to plasma volume increasing faster than RCV, not true anaemia
132
What hormones mediate increased blood volume?
- Aldosterone (PV)
- ADH (PV)
- Erythropoietin (RCV)
133
What stimuli can increase plasma volume?
- Heat
- Long-duration activity
- Dehydration
- Upright recovery
- Altitude/hypoxia
134
What changes occur in vascularisation with training?
- Larger arteries/arterioles
- New vessel networks
- Increased capillarisation (angiogenesis)
135
What causes angiogenesis during training?
Local metabolic signals and shear stress, which increases nitric oxide (NO)
136
What benefits does increased capillarisation provide?
- ↓ diffusion distance
- ↑ time for exchange
- ↑ blood flow into tissue
137
What muscle characteristics influence capillarisation needs?
Fibre size (bigger fibres need more) and fibre type (oxidative fibres need more)
138
How does aerobic training affect muscle fibre type and size?
- Type I fibres hypertrophy (~30%)
- Type II shift towards IIa
- All fibres become more oxidative
139
How are Type II fibres recruited during training?
Through high force activities - intervals or Fartlek training
140
What mitochondrial adaptations occur with aerobic training?
- ↑ mitochondrial protein
- Enzymes (Krebs & ETC)
- Aerobic metabolism capacity
141
What energy substrates benefit from mitochondrial adaptations?
- Glycogen
- Glucose
- Intramuscular triglycerides (IMTG)
- Plasma fatty acids
142
What is the glycogen sparing effect?
Enhanced fat metabolism and CHO conservation during exercise, improving endurance and training volume
143
What causes the glycogen sparing effect?
↑ capillarisation and mitochondrial volume
144
What is the function of muscle myoglobin?
Aids O₂ diffusion from membrane to mitochondria and serves as a ready O₂ source
145
What is lactate a marker of?
The rate of anaerobic glycolysis relative to oxidative metabolism and the ability to clear lactate from the blood
146
Why is lactate threshold important for endurance performance?
It is closely related to ventilatory threshold, can increase >100%, and is the best predictor of performance in 10–60 min events
147
What factors must be considered when testing lactate threshold?
Mode, intensity, time at intensity, prior activity, hydration, nutrition, and temperature
148
What mechanisms help increase lactate threshold?
Reduced lactate production and/or increased clearance
149
What physiological adaptations aid lactate clearance?
Increased O₂ supply, capillarisation, mitochondrial density, lactate shuttle, Cori cycle/gluconeogensis
150
What training methods stimulate lactate clearance?
High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), increased capillarisation, and mitochondrial biogenesis from both interval and continuous training
151
How does training improve fuel availability?
Increases CHO and triglyceride storage, uptake, and synthesis; reduces reliance on blood glucose and muscle glycogen
152
What changes reduce lactate and H⁺ accumulation?
Change in LDH subtype, increased NADH shuttles, and increased ATP (less ADP → reduced PFK activation)
153
How does training improve thermoregulation?
Increases sweat rate, sweat capacity, and skin blood flow
154
What structural and health adaptations occur with endurance training?
Improved bone density, connective tissue health, gut microbiota, immune function, brain energetics, and sodium balance
155
Which training types target central and peripheral components?
Both interval and continuous training target central and peripheral components
156
What are key adaptations from aerobic training?
- Increases in mitochondrial density
- Capillarisation
- Blood volume
- Red cell mass
- Type I/II fiber changes
- Myoglobin
- Substrate storage
- Mechanical/metabolic efficiency
157
Which adaptations occur quickly (days–weeks)?
- Plasma volume
- Resting HR
- Cardiac antioxidant capacity
158
Which adaptations take months–years?
- Left ventricle mass
- Type I fiber hypertrophy
- Bone density
- Thermoregulation
- Economy
159
Which adaptations show the greatest % change over 6–12 months?
- Lactate threshold power
- Endurance capacity
- Mitochondrial volume
- Aerobic enzymes
- Economy
160
Which adaptations show lesser changes?
- HRmax
- Bone density
- Myoglobin
161
What are key aerobic training recommendations for performance?
1–2 sessions of HIIT (85–100% VO₂max, 20–240 s intervals), and 4 continuous sessions (50–80% VO₂max)
162
What are key aerobic training recommendations for health?
Emphasise variety and preference, often using games or sport-specific drills
163
What are the key benefits of HIIT?
Stimulates all energy systems, boosts aerobic adaptations with less volume, increases vascular shear and cardiac load
164
How does HIIT improve endurance for athletes?
- Promotes aerobic reliance
- Effective at improving aerobic power
- Especially in late training phases
165
What major systems contribute to endurance performance?
- Cardiovascular (e.g., SV, HR, BV)
- Muscular (e.g., fiber type, mitochondria)
- Metabolic (e.g., enzyme activity, substrate storage)
- Thermoregulatory
- Psychological factors (e.g., motivation, pain tolerance)
