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Biology > Transport in animals > Flashcards

Transport in animals Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the open circulatory system usually found in invertebrates, including the transport medium, vessels and exchange. (4)

A
  • (In insects) the transport medium is haemolymph. (1)
  • There are very few vessels compard to other transport systems. (1)
  • Haemolymph pumped straight from the heart to the haemocoel (body cavity). (1)
  • Exchange occurs in the haemocoel, where haemolymph makes direct contact with cells and tissues. (1)
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2
Q

How is the open system’s inability to vary amounts of hameolymph at different tissues a limitation? (1)

A

It means that the system cannot adapt haemolymph amounts to meet changing demands in the insect’s body; steep diffusion gradients cannot be maintained efficiently. (1)

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3
Q

Fill in the gaps comparing open and closed circulatory systems:

While the transport medium in open circulatory systems is ___, it is ___ in closed circulatory systems. There is an abundance of blood vessels to carry the blood in closed systems, while there are very ___ in open systems. In closed systems, the transport medium is transported at a higher ___ ___ (making it quicker). Exchange occurs in the haemocoel in open systems, where the haemolymph is in ___ contact with cells, but in closed systems, this occurs in the ___ - blood never comes into ___ ___ with cells. (7)

A
  • Haemolymph (1)
  • Blood (1)
  • Few (1)
  • Blood pressure (1)
  • Direct (1)
  • Capillaries (1)
  • Direct contact (1)
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4
Q

State three differences between single closed and double closed circulatory systems. (3)

A
  • Found in fish/annelid worms; found in birds/mammals. (1)
  • Two heart chambers; four heart chambers. (1)
  • Low blood pressure; high blood pressure. (1)
  • Slow rate of flow; fast rate of flow. (1)
  • Blood returns the heart slowly (due to travelling through two capillary networks); blood returns to the heart quickly (due to only travelling through one capillary network). (1)
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5
Q

Fill in the blanks, naming each of the five vessels you need to know:

In a mammalian circulatory system, the heart sends the blood into ___. These branch into ___ which eventually lead into ___. This is where exchange happens. They rejoin into ___ which become ___, which carry the blood back to the heart. (5)

A
  • Arteries (1)
  • Arterioles (1)
  • Capillaries (1)
  • Venules (1)
  • Veins (1)
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6
Q

What are the smooth, thin layers of cells in blood vessels called and what type of blood vessel’s walls solely consist of these? (2)

A
  • Endothelium (1)
  • Capillaries (1)
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7
Q

Blood in the arteries is at its highest pressure. How do arteries cope with this? (3)

A
  • Artery walls have thick layers of elastic tissue which are able to expand and contract. (1)
  • Smooth muscle controls the diameter and keeps the vessel open. (1)
  • The thick layer of collagen withstands forces and supports the structure. (1)
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8
Q

Which blood vessels have the narrowest lumen and why is this a good adaptation for it? (2)

A
  • Capillaries. (1)
  • This maximises gaseous/nutrient exchange (decreased diffusion distance). (1)
    Further explanation - the narrow lumen squeezes RBCs against the endothelium. In most parts of the body, the gaps between endothelial cells are large, so RBCs can get in these gaps.
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9
Q

Blood flow in the capillaries slows down. Why is this a defense mechanism and how does it do this? (3)

A
  • If the pressure was as high as it is in the arteries and arterioles, the walls of the capillaries would be damaged OR the blood needs more time to exchange substances with cells. (1)
  • The blood is under increased resistance due to its interaction with the capillary walls. (1)
  • The cross-sectional area of the capillaries is larger than the arterioles, to ensure a drop in pressure. (1)
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10
Q

How are veins structured to carry blood back to the heart at a low pressure? (5)

A
  • The walls are thin. (1)
  • The lumen is wide, maximising blood flow. (1)
  • Valves prevent back flow. (1)
  • They are usually surrounded by muscles (1) in the body that compress the veins, pushing the blood along. (1)
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11
Q

What is the job of a venule? (1)

A

To carry the blood from the capillaries to the veins. (1)

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12
Q

How is vasodilation and vasoconstriction used in arterioles? (4)

A
  • Vasodilation/vasoconstriction allows arterioles to direct the flow of blood into certain organs. (1)
  • The contraction of smooth muscle (1) constricts the vessel, preventing blood flow into a capillary bed. (1)
  • When the smooth muscle relaxes, the blood vessel dilates, allowing blood to flow into the capillary bed. (1)
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13
Q

Name three substances/molecules found in the plasma. (3)

A
  • Water
  • Albumin (1)
  • (Dissolved) glucose (1)
  • Mineral ions (1)
  • Hormones (1)
  • Fibrinogen (1)
  • Globulins (1)
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14
Q

Albumin are proteins in the blood that maintain ___ ___. (1)

A

Osmotic potential; oncotic pressure (1)

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15
Q

Fill in the blanks about the production of tissue fluid:

Due to plasma proteins called ___, blood has a high solute potential compared to surrounding fluid. So, ___ moves into the blood via ___ (mainly in the ___) - this is called oncotic pressure. Blood entering the capillaries is affected by ___ of the heart still (___ pressure). At the arterial end of the capillaries, this pressure in ___ than the oncotic pressure. The volume of water being ___ ___ of the capillaries is greater than the volume of water entering.
This fluid fills the spaces between cells and is tissue fluid. (8)

A
  • Albumins (1)
  • Water (1)
  • Osmosis (1)
  • Capillaries (1)
  • Contractions (1)
  • Hydrostatic (1)
  • Greater (1)
  • Squeezed out (1)
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16
Q

Tissue fluid is mostly made up of the same things as plasma, but lacks…

A
  • Red blood cells (1)
  • Albumins (1)
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17
Q

At the venous end of the capillary, oncotic pressure is higher than hydrostatic pressure. What does this result in?

A

Most (90%) of the tissue fluid returns to blood once it reaches the veins. (1)

18
Q

Fill in the gaps about lymph:

Lymph is the 10% of ___ ___ that does not return to the blood vessels and becomes lymph once it enters ___ ___. Lymph has less oxygen and ___ than tissue fluid and contains ___ ___ (absorbed from villi on the small intestine), but other than that it is made up of the same things. Squeezed along by ___ contraction, lymph eventually returns to the blood. ___ is prevented by valves. (6)

A
  • Tissue fluid (1)
  • Lymph capillaries (1)
  • Nutrients (1)
  • Fatty acids (1)
  • Muscle (1)
  • Backflow (1)
19
Q

Fill in the gaps about haemoglobin:

Haemoglobin is a ___ protein that has ___ polypeptide chains. Each contains a ___ prosthetic group that oxygen can ___ to. (4)

A
  • Quaternary (1)
  • Four (1)
  • Haem (1)
  • Bind (1)
20
Q

Name two adaptations of red blood cells. (2)

A
  • They lack nuclei and other organelles, maximising the amount of haemoglobin each cell can contain. (1)
  • Their biconcave shape maximises their SA:V ratio meaning they exchange gases efficiently. (1)
21
Q

What do we call oxygen binded to haemoglobin? (1)

A

Oxyhaemoglobin (1)

22
Q

In the capillaries around the alveoli, the first oxygen that binds to a haemoglobin in a RBC causes the cell to change shape. What does this result in? (2)

A

Oxygen is able to bind to haemoglobin more easily (1), so it starts to occur rapidly (1).

23
Q

Why is the binding of oxygen to haemoglobin reversible? (1)

A

(Oxygen must be able to dissociate from haemoglobin) to be used in respiration. (1)

24
Q

Explain the concentration gradient between:
- Oxygen in the alveoli and erythrocytes in the capillaries. (1)
- Oxygen in erythrocytes and body cells. (1)

This concentration gradient can be explained in terms of ___ pressure. (1)

A
  • There are more oxygens in the alveoli than in the capillaries (and vice versa). (1)
  • There are less oxygens in the body cells than in the erythrocytes (and vice versa). (1)
  • Partial (1)
25
Q

Describe the relationship between partial pressure and the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen. (3)

A
  • A slight change in partial pressure will greatly affect the saturation of haemoglobin (with oxygen). (1)
  • High partial pressure in the lungs will result in haemoglobin being rapidly loaded with oxygen. (1)
  • A small drop in partial pressure in respiring tissues will result in oxygen rapidly dissociating from haemoglobin. (1)
26
Q

Fill in the gaps about the bohr effect:

As partial pressure of carbon dioxide ___, oxygen dissociates from haemoglobin more ___. (2)

Explain why the bohr effect is important (in the lungs and active tissues). (2)

A
  • Increases (1)
  • Easily (1)
  • In active tissues where the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is high, haemoglobin gives up oxygen more easily. (1)
  • In the lungs where the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is low, oxygen binds to haemoglobin more easily. (1)
27
Q

Explain why it is important that fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin. (3)

A
  • Fetuses are completely dependent on their mothers for oxygen. (1)
  • If affinity were equal, no oxygen would be transferred to the fetuses’ bloodstream (in the placenta). (1)
  • Allows fetuses to remove oxygen from maternal blood. (1)
28
Q

What are the three ways we transport carbon dioxide (from the tissues to the lungs)? (3)

A
  • A small amount (5%) is dissolved in the plasma. (1)
  • Lots (10-20%) combines with amino acids in the polypeptide chains of haemoglobin, forming carbaminoglobin. (1)
  • Most (75-85%) are converted into hydrogen carbonate ions (in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes). (1)
29
Q

Fill in the blanks about hydrogen carbonate ions:

Carbon dioxide reacts slowly with ___ to form ___ acid. This acid dissociates to form hydrogen ions and hydrogen ___ ions. In blood plasma, this reaction happens slowly. However, in the ___ of erythrocytes, there is an abundance of carbonic ___ (an enzyme), which ___ the reversible reaction between carbon dioxide and water.
This process maintains a steep ___ ___, allowing for carbon dioxide to diffuse out of ___ tissues. (8)

A
  • Water (1)
  • Carbonic (1)
  • Carbonate (1)
  • Cytoplasm (1)
  • Anhydrase (1)
  • Catalyses (1)
  • Concentration gradient (1)
  • Respiring (1)
30
Q

Hydrogen carbonate ions are negatively charged. Explain the chloride shift that occurs and why. (2)

A
  • Chloride ions (from the plasma) move into the erythrocytes. (1)
  • This maintains the electrical balance of the cells (1)
31
Q

Explain the process that occurs once blood (containing chloride ions, hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate ions) reaches the lung tissue (where there is a low concentration of carbon dioxide). (3)

A
  • Hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse back into the erythrocytes and react with hydrogen ions; forms carbonic acid. (1)
  • Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reverse reaction of carbonic acid, producing water and carbon dioxide. (1)
  • This carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs. (1)
32
Q

Due to the amount of acid being removed from the blood cells, haemoglobin acts as a pH buffer. Explain how it does this. (1)

A

Haemoglobin accepts free hydrogen ions; forms haemoglobinic acid. (1)

33
Q

Fill in the blanks about the structure and function of the heart:

D___ blood enters the right ___ through the s___ vena cava (if the blood is coming from the upper body, or the i___ vena cava (if blood is coming from the lower body). Blood is at a ___ pressure in the right side of the heart, so atria have ___ walls.
Pressure builds up in the atrium until the t___ valve opens, allowing blood into the right ___. Once both chambers are full of blood, the atrium ___, forcing the rest of the blood into the right ventricle. The valve closes as the ventricle begins to contract (preventing ___). T___ chords stop the heart turning inside out due to ___. Blood is pumped into the ___ artery, through the s___ valve. (14)

A
  • Deoxygenated (1)
  • Atrium (1)
  • Superior (1)
  • Inferior (1)
  • Low (1)
  • Thin (1)
  • Tricuspid (1)
  • Ventricle (1)
  • Contracts (1)
  • Backflow (1)
  • Tendinous (1)
  • Pressure (1)
  • Pulmonary (1)
  • Semilunar (1)
34
Q

Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium through what blood vessel? (1)

A

Pulmonary vein (1)

35
Q

Name the atrioventricular valve between the left atrium and left ventricle. (1)

A

Bicuspid valve (1)

36
Q

Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle through a semilunar valve into the ___. (1)

A

Aorta (1)

37
Q

Explain why the left chambers of the heart have much thicker walls compared to the right side. (3)

A
  • The left side pumps oxygenated blood at a high pressure. (1)
  • The lungs are relatively close to the heart; right side of heart only has to pump blood a short distance. (1)
  • Left side has to pump blood under pressure everywhere in the body. (1)
38
Q

Describe the diastole state of the heart in the cardiac cycle, including the pressure/volume in the heart and arteries. (4)

A
  • The heart relaxes. (1)
  • Atria fills with blood, then ventricles. (1)
  • Pressure and volume increase in the heart. (1)
  • Pressure in arteries at a minimum. (1)
39
Q

Describe the systole state of the heart, including the pressure/volume in the heart and arteries. (6)

A
  • Atrial systole (contraction of the atria) occurs (1).
  • Followed by ventricular systole. (1)
  • The pressure inside the heart largely increases. (1)
  • Blood is forced out (through the right side) into the pulmonary artery; (through the left side) into the aorta. (1)
  • Volume/pressure at a minimum in heart at the end of systole (1); pressure at a maximum in the arteries at the end of systole. (1)
40
Q

What does cardiac muscle being myogenic mean? (1)

A

The heart has its own intrinsic rhythm (60bpm) and does not require nerve impulses to be stimulated. (1)

41
Q

Fill in the gaps about heart initiation and coordination:

At the ___-___ node (SAN) a wave of electrical excitation begins that causes atrial ___. This electrical activity is picked up by ___-___ node (AVN). There is a small delay to allow the atria to stop contracting before the AVN stimulates the bundle of ___ (conducting tissue made up of purkyne fibres). This bundle penetrates the ___ between ventricles and splits into two ___ which conduct the wave of excitation to the ___ of the heart.
The ___ fibres are spread along the ventricular walls and trigger ventricular ___, starting at the bottom. (9)

A
  • Sino-atrial (1)
  • Atrial systole (1)
  • Atrio-ventricular (1)
  • His (1)
  • Septum (1)
  • Branches (1)
  • Apex (1)
  • Purkyne (1)
  • Systole (1)
42
Q

Match up the two sets of terms about heart issues (5):

Set 1:
1. Tachycardia
2. Normal heartbeat
3. Brachycardia
4. Ectopic heartbeat
5. Atrial fibrillation

Set 2:

A. Slowed heartbeat, evenly spaced
(<60bpm)

B. Rapid heartbeat, evenly spaced,
(>100bpm); can be normal if one is
exercising, excited etc.

C. Has extra beats, out of rhythm: can
sometimes be normal, but not if its
frequient.

D. Irregular rhythm, rapid electrial
impulses triggered in atria. Atria do
not contract properly and only some
impulses are passed on to the
ventricles. Inefficient pumping of
blood.

E. Evenly spaced (60bpm).

A

1B (1)
2E (1)
3A (1)
4C (1)
5D (1)

Biology (9 decks)

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