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Intro to Psychology > Tuesday Exam Psych > Flashcards

Tuesday Exam Psych Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

A process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience.

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2
Q

Conditioning

A

The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

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3
Q

Behaviorism

A
  1. Classical Conditioning
  2. Operant Conditioning
  3. Observational Learning
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4
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Basic learning involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response.

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5
Q

Unconditional Stimulus [UCS]

A

The natural stimulus reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning. Meat

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6
Q

Unconditional Response [UCR]

A

unlearned, reflexive response, that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. Salivating to meat

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7
Q

Conditional Stimulus [CS]

A

A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response. Bell presented before meat.

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8
Q

Conditioned Response [CR]

A

Learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus. Salivating to bell alone.

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9
Q

Classical Conditioning

A
  1. Timing
  2. Stimulus generalization
  3. Stimulu discrimination
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10
Q

Classical Conditioning

A
  1. Extinction

2. Spontaneous Recovery

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11
Q

John Garcia

A

Taste Aversions

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12
Q

Biological Preparedness

A

In learning theory, the idea
that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.
*i.e., common fears

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13
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

[B.F Skinner]

Reinforcement – Positive or Negative

  • Primary reinforcers
  • Secondary reinforcers
    • see schedules of reinforcement

Punishment– Positive or Negative

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14
Q

Schedules of reinforcement

A
  • Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement
  • Ratio - Fixed or Variable
  • Interval- Fixed or Variable
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15
Q

Problems with Punishment [SOR]

A
  • Must be applied immediately
  • Does not teach or promote alternatively acceptable behavior
  • May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear
  • Results likely to be temporary
  • May Model Aggression
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16
Q

Cognitive Factors - Tolman

A

Demonstrated the animals learn a cognitive map of a maze instead of a series of fo responses.

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17
Q

Cognitive Map

A

Term for a mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment.

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18
Q

Latent Learning

A

Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement, but is not demonstrated until a reinforcer is available.

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19
Q

Observation Learning

A
  • Albert Bandura - Bobo Doll Study
  • Mirror
  • Reali-life applications
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20
Q

Memory

A

A group of related mental processes that are involved in acquiring, spring, and retrieving information.

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21
Q

Three major processes of memory

A
  • Encoding: Transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained by the memory system.
  • Storage: Retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time.
  • Retrieval: Recovering stored information for conscious awareness.
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22
Q

Sensory memory

A
  • Environmental information is registered.
  • Large capacity for information.
  • Duration: 1/4 second to 3 seconds
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23
Q

Short-Term [working] Memory

A
  • New information is transferred from sensory memory.
  • Old information is retrieved from long-term memory.
  • Limited capacity for information.
  • Duration approx. 20 seconds
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24
Q

Long-Term Memory

A
  • Information that has been encoded in short-term memory is stored.
  • Unlimited capacity for information.
  • Duration: potentially permanent.
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25
Q

Short-Term [working] Memory

A
  • Provides temporary storage for information transferred from sensory and long-term memory [about 20 seconds].
  • George Miller – “The Magical Number Seven, Plus, or Minus Two”
  • Can be retained longer through maintenance rehearsal, chunking, and memonic devices/
  • Information is usually forgotten or lost due to new or compete information.
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26
Q

Long-Term Memory

A

Elaborative rehearsal > Maintenance rehearsal for LTM.

  • Self Reference effect.
  • Visual Imagery
  • Relate to previous material.
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27
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Explicit Memory
[Declaration Memory] Memory with conscious recall:
- Episodic Memory: Events you have experienced
- Semantic Memory: General Knowledge, facts

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28
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Implicit Memory [Nondeclaratove Memory] Memory without conscious recall:
- Procedural Memory: Motor Skills, actions.

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29
Q

Culture and Memory

A
  • Cross-Cultural research has shown how culture helps shape one’s sense of self.
  • Earliest autobiographical memories are for events that occurred between the ages of two and four [infantile amnesia].
    • Individualisitic cultures vs. Collectivistic cultures .
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30
Q

Organizing of LTM

- Clustering:

A

Related items are grouped together form categories.

  • Can remember list items better if presented in categories.
  • Natural to put into a logical pattern.
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31
Q

[Retrieval Cues]

Forgetting:

A

The inability to retrieve previously available information.

32
Q

Retrieval cue:

A

A clue, prompt, or hint that can help trigger the recall of stored memory.

  • Testing Retrieval:
  • Recall [ex: essay test]
  • Cued recall [ex: matching or fill-in-the-blank]
  • Recognition [ex: multiple choice]
33
Q

Serial Position Effect

A
  • The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of the list better than items in the middle
  • Primary Effect
  • Recency Effect
34
Q

[Encoding Specificity]

Context Effects:

A

The tendency to remember information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting in which you originally learned the information
- Mood Congruence Effect

35
Q

Motivated forgetting:

A

An undesired memory is held back from awareness.

36
Q

Suppression:
Repression:

A
  • Conscious Forgetting

- Unconscious forgetting [Freudian]

37
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Inability to remember past episodic informstion.

38
Q

Anterograde Amnesia:

A

Inability to form new memories.

39
Q

Cognition

A

Mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining and using knowledge developed over the human lifespan

40
Q

Thinking

A

Manipulation of mental representation to draw inferences and conclusions.

41
Q

Concepts:

A

Mental, category of objects or ideas based on shared properties

  • Using concepts makes it easier to:
  • Communicate with others
  • Remember information
  • Learn new information
42
Q

Formal Concept

A

Mental category formed by learning rules.

[Ex: A Substance can be categorized as a solid, liquid, or gas.]

43
Q

Natural concept

A

Mental category formed by everyday experience.

- Natural concepts have “fuzzy” boundaries and are not always sharply defined.

44
Q

Prototype

A

The best, or most typical, an example of a particle concept.

45
Q

[Problem-Solving Startegies]

Trial and Error:

A

Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating those that don’t work.

46
Q

Algorithm

A

Using a specific rule, procedure, or method [such as a mathematical formula] inevitably produces the correct solution.
- Ex: Degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit [F=C x 9/5 + 32]

47
Q

Heuristics

A

Following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions.

  • Ex: Trying someone’s birthday as the password to their account rather than trying random combinations of numbers.
  • Useful heuristics:
  • Breaking a problem into a series of subgoals
  • Working backward
48
Q

Functional Fixedness:

A

Tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way.

49
Q

Mental set:

A

Tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past

50
Q

Fixation:

A

Inability to see a problem from a new perspective

51
Q

[Decision Making Strategies]

Elimination by Aspects model:

A

Rate choices based on features; eliminate those that do not meet the desired criteria, despite other desirable characteristics

52
Q

Single-Feature Model:

A

Make a decision by focusing on only one feature.

53
Q

Additive model:

A

Systematically evaluate the important features of each alternative.

54
Q

The Availability Heuristic

A

Judge probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event.

  • Most people will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently shown on TV.
  • Most people will underestimate deaths from asthma because those deaths don’t make local news.
55
Q

The Representativeness Heuristic

A

The likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event.

56
Q

Language

A

A system of combining arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statements.
- The purpose of language is to communicate – to express meaningful information in a way that can be understood by others.

57
Q

Whorfian Hypothesis/Linguistic Relatively Hypothesis:

A

Langauge determines the very structure of thoughts and perceptions.

58
Q

Comparative Cognition [animal cognition]

A

The study of animal learning, memory, thinking and language.

59
Q

Intelligence

A
  • Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment
  • Reflected in effective, rational, and goal-directed behavior.
  • How we use our cognition abilities and acquired knowledge ti analyze situations, solve, problems, make decisions, and use language are all key dimensions of intelligence.
60
Q

Alfred Binet {1857-1911]

A
  • Devised a series of of tests to measure different mental abilities for the french government.
  • Focused on elementary mental abilities, such as memory, attention, and the ability to understand similarities and differences.
  • Goal was to help identify “Slow” children who could benefit from special help
  • Invented concept of mental age based on the average age at which questions were answered correctly.
61
Q

Lewis Terman- Stanford Bint IQ Test

A

Developed the concept of IQ: A measure of general intelligence derived by comparing an individual’s score with the scores of others in the same age group.
- IQ formula= MA/CA x 100
Ex: A bright child of a chronological age [CA] of 8 scores at the mental age [MA] fo 12 for an IQ of 150
- 12/8 x 100 =150

62
Q

Dissatisfaction of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales led to the development of the ______. Its several components included.

A

Wechslers Adult Intelligence Scale [WAIS]

63
Q

Verbal Scores:

A

Scores on subsets of vocabulary, comprehension, and knowledge of general information.

64
Q

Performance Score:

A

Largely nonverbal subtestsL identifying missing parts in incomplete pictures, arranging pictures to tell a story, arranging blocks to match a given patter.

65
Q

Charles Spearman- General Intelligence

A
  • factor that is responsible for a person’s overall performance on tests of mental ability.
66
Q

Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A
  • Proposed a different conception of successful intelligence.
  • Successful intelligence involves three distinct types:
  • Analytic Intelligence- mental processes used in learning how to solve problems
  • Creative Intelligence_ The ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge.
  • Practical Intelligence_ The ability to adapt to the environment [street smarts]
67
Q

Howard Gardner

A

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

68
Q

[Extremes of Intelligence] Intellectual disability:

A

Neurodevelopment disorder in which deficits in mental abilities impair functioning such that standards of personal independence are not met.

69
Q

[Extremes of Intelligence] Intellectual Giftedness:

A

A condition in which individuals have and IQ of 10 or higher and exceptional abilities in areas related to intelligence.

70
Q

Motivation

A

The biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior

  • Three basic components
  • Activation
  • Intensity
  • Persistence
71
Q

Instinct Theory

A

The view that certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming

72
Q

Drive Theory

A

The view that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs.

Unmet biological need > Drive > Homeostasis

73
Q

Incentive Theory [Theories of Motivation]

A

The view that behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals, such as rewards

74
Q

Arousal Theory:

A

The view that people are motivated to maintain a level of arousal that is optimal - neither too high nor to low

75
Q

Humanistic theory:

A

The view that emphasizes the importance of psychological and cognitive factors in motivation, especially the notion that people are motivated to realize their personal potential.

76
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

A

Maslow’s Hierarchical division of motivation into levels that progress from basic physical needs to psychological needs to self-fulfillment needs.

77
Q

Theories of Motivation Chart

A
  • Basic needs [Physiological Needs; Safety needs] food, water, warmth, rest; security, safety.
  • Psychological needs [Belongingness and love needs; Esteem needs] Intimated relationships, friends; prestige and feelings of accomplishment.
  • Self-fulfillment needs [Self-Actualization] achieving ones’ full potential, including, creative activities.

Intro to Psychology (2 decks)

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