Typical executive function development

Question 1

EF

Answer 1

• set of processes that underlie the ability to control our thought & actions
• inhibition, WM, shfiting
• function/abilitry sustained by various mechanisms/processes
• nature of processes: effortful, top-down, goal-direct, acts on thought & actions
• situations where processes are used: novel situations, situations requiring flexibility

Question 2

diamond (2013) on EFs

extra reading

Answer 2

EFs family of top-down processes needed when you have to pay attention/not automation

Question 3

unity and diversity model

Answer 3

• Miyake et al. (2000)
• diff tasks use similar functions
• all tasks rely on general EFs but some might be more important for certain tasks than others

Question 4

best & miller (2010) relating to university and diversity model

extra reading

Answer 4

• hughes (1998) and welsh et al. (1991) emphasise independence of factor (attentional flexibility, inhibitory control, WM)
• lehto et al. (2013) found university and diversity view best fit data from children aged 8-13

Question 5

updating/WM

Answer 5

• holding important info or your ‘goal’ in mind
• manipulating info in your head
• lab - digit span, spatial span
• WM: central executive as having to update throughout tasks

Question 6

inhibition

Answer 6

• ignoring distracting info or suppressing unwanted responses
• lab - go/no-go tas, stroop paradigm
• in some situations it is easy to stop yourself
• inhibition difficult when automatic or salient

Question 7

diamond (2013) on inhibition

extra reading

Answer 7

• without inhibitory control, conditioned responses would take over
• ability to exercise inhibitory control creates possibility of change and choice
• cognitive inhibition = suppressing mental representations
• self-control = resisting temptations and not acting impulsively

Question 8

cognitive flexibility/shifting

Answer 8

• responding to the same thing in diff ways depending on the context
• lab: dimensional change card sort test, task-switching paradigm

Question 9

diamond (2013) on shifting

extra reading

Answer 9

• closely linked to creativity
• allows us to change perspectives spatially or interpersonally
• involves changing how we think about something
• involves being flexible enough to adjust to changed demands or priorities, to admit you were wrong, and to take advantage of sudden, unexpected opportunities
• family of tasks includes design fluency, verbal fluency, and category fluency

Question 10

importance/outcomes of EF

Answer 10

• early EF skills are a predictor of later academic & social success
• better physical health, personal finance, less likely substance use, academic achievement

Question 11

diamong (2013) on impact of EF

extra reading

Answer 11

• moffitt et al. (2011): better inhibitory control aged 3-11 less likely to make risky choices in smoking or taking drugs, better physical and mental health, earn more
• once controlled for IQ, gender, SES, family background while growing up
• essential for successful schooling

Question 12

infants & EF

Answer 12

• first signs of cognitive control at 8-9m
• consolidated at 12m
• can be seen by A not B and detour reach

Question 13

toddlers & preschoolers on EF

2-5y

Answer 13

• dramatic improvements across all aspects
• WM: spin the pots
• inhibition: day/night stroop
• shifting: DCCS

Question 14

garon et al. (2008) on preschoolers and
EF

extra reading

Answer 14

• reviewed EF literature during preschool period using integrative framework
• framework considers EF to be unitary construct with dissociable components (Miyake et al., 2000)
• central executive involved in all EF operations
• changes in EF during latter half of preschool period appear to be due to development of attention and integration of component EFs

Question 15

preschoolers & WM

hughes & ensor (2007)

Answer 15

• spin the pots
• find stickers hidden in pots - shouldn’t go back to that pot to find another sticker
• performance improves between 2 & 4 yrs

Question 16

preschoolers on inhibition

gerstadt et al. (1994)

Answer 16

• day/night stroop
• performance improves 4.5 & 6 yrs but still slight delay
• arguably could be impacted by WM which is why there is a control condition
• 90% accuracy for control even at a young age

Question 17

preschoolers and shifting

zelazo (2006)

Answer 17

• DCCS
• colour game
• shape game
• passing = sorting 4/5 cards correctly
• dramatic improvement in performance between 3 & 4 years

Question 18

mid-childhood and EF

5-11y

Answer 18

• improvements in WM & inhibition
• shifting is more complicated

Question 19

WM in mid-childhood

siegel & ryan (1989)

Answer 19

• sentence and counting span tasks
• sentence: after certain number of trials asked to recall the words, increase number of sentences until can’t anymote
• counting: count number of yellow dots remember this sequence until can’t anymore
• performance improving throughout primary school years

Question 20

inhibition in mid-childhood

li et al. (2009)

Answer 20

• indicate colour of central circle
• version of flanker
• measure RT diffs between same & diff colours for central & outer circles
• RT diffs decreases with age
• rapid improvement from about 7-20 then flattens off, slowly increases over age from ~40

Question 21

mid-childhood across all EF components

huizinga et al. (2006)

Answer 21

• WM continues to improve through teenage years
• shifting just as good by 15 as 21 so develops earlier
• inhibitions development changes depending on type of task but all tend to have developed by 15

Question 22

challenges and outstanding questions when relating to typical development of EF

Answer 22

• EFs are hard to isolate from other processes
• same tasks can’t be used across all age groups
• still a long way from understanding what is driving these developmental changes

Question 23

EF across cultures

jukes et al. (2024)

Answer 23

• measurement of EFs in children likely to be affected by cultural preferences
• motivation and compliance
• interpersonal engagement
• contextualised vs academic thinking
• cultural notions of speed and time
• willingness to be silly, incorrect, or do the opposite
• subject-matter famimliarity

Question 24

neural basis of EF - traditional view

Answer 24

• frontal lobes - PFC
• frontal lobe damage produces “dysexecutive syndrome”

Question 25

neural basis of EF - modern view

Answer 25

* lesions or underdevelopment of brain structures or pathways involved in the circuits * abnormal NT activity within the circuits

Question 26

grey matter

Answer 26

contains cell bodies, dendrites & axon terminals of neurons, so it is where all synapses are

Question 27

white matter

Answer 27

made up of myelinated axons connecting diff parts of grey matter to each other

Question 28

grey matter development

Answer 28

* prefrontal cortex: latest to undergo synaptogenesis, peak at 2-4yrs * synaptic pruning until early adulthood --> strengthening of relevant connections * less maturation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Question 29

white matter development

Answer 29

* nonlinear increase throughout childhood and adolescence * likely driven by increases in myelination & axonal packing * increases but tapers off (asymptote type of graph)

Question 30

connectivity development

Answer 30

* correlation between connections between brain areas * changes with age, shift from childhood to adulthood * short distance connections decrease with age * long distance connections increase with age

Question 31

grey matter development & EF | adleman et al. (2002)

Answer 31

* 30 ppts aged 7-22 * colour-word stroop while in fMRI * increased inhibition-related activity in fronal lobe with age e.g. adults recruited their frontal lobes more than children

Question 32

white matter development & EF | nagy et al. (2004)

Answer 32

* 23 ppts aged 7-18 * completed a visuospatial STM task * underwent a structural MRI scan * correlated task performance of myelination of white matter tracts * STM ability related to myelination in areas of frontal lobe

Question 33

connectivity development & EF | hwang et al. (2010)

Answer 33

* 98 ppts aged 8-27 * performed antisaccade task while undergoing an fMRI scan * look at connectivity by correlating activity in diff brain regions * during a task that requires inhibition, children rely on short range connections in the parietal lobe, teenagers and adults rely on longer range connections from the frontal lobe to other areas of the brain * strength of long range connections increases with age

Question 34

challenges and outstanding questions in relation to linking brain and EFs

Answer 34

* still relatively few studies linking improvements in EF with age to changes in the brain * carrying out imagining studies with children is expensive and takes a lot of hard work * does maturation of brain drive changes in behavioural performance, or does improvement in behavioural performance result in changes in the brain?