U3AOS1 PSY

Question 1

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Answer 1

allows communication via neurons that allow the body to receive, interpret and respond to information
conscious responses: require awareness (e.g. kicking a ball)
unconscious responses: don’t involve awareness (e.g. breathing regulation, spinal reflex)

Question 2

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

Answer 2

comprised of the spinal cord and brain, which contain interneurons

Question 3

Role of Spinal cord

Answer 3

Receives sensory information from the PNS, transporting these messages to the brain (if required)

Receives motor decisions from the brain and relays these back to the PNS

Initiate spinal reflex (an unlearnt, unconscious response that occurs to reduce harm to the body).

• A sensation is received from the sensory receptors, which is then sent through afferent neurons (PNS) to the spinal cord, where interneurons intercept the message
• Interneurons send a message via efferent neurons, which causes a withdrawal motion
• After this, a message is sent to the CNS through interneurons to allow the brain to take further actions regarding the pain

Question 4

Role of the Brain

Answer 4

Analyses sensory information and directs future responses

Manages conscious and unconscious decisions

Question 5

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

Answer 5

Involves all other nerves that extend from the spinal cord and brain
It has two main subdivisions: autonomic and somatic

Question 6

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Answer 6

Carries information from sensory and internal organs along sensory/afferent neurons to the CNS
Carries information from the CNS along motor/efferent neurons to internal organs
Usually results in involuntary or unconscious regulation of organs

Question 7

sympathetic nervous system:

Answer 7

dominant in times of stress, activates NOG (non-skeletal muscles, organs and glands) to deal with stress, initiates fight-flight-freeze

Question 8

parasympathetic nervous system

Answer 8

dominant when the body is at rest and causes the body to return to homeostasis

Question 9

Enteric nervous system

Answer 9

neurons in the GI tract that can function independently of the CNS but can communicate directly to the brain via the vagus nerve

Question 10

PSNS & SNS effects: Adrenal Gland

Answer 10

P: Adrenaline release slows down

S: Increased release of adrenaline which helps activate the fight-flight-freeze response

Question 11

PSNS & SNS effects: Eyes

Answer 11

P: Eyes contract - as the eyes do not require as much light in normal conditions

S: Eyes dilate - allows more light to enter the eyes; making it easier to see

Question 12

PSNS & SNS effects: Mouth

Answer 12

P: Saliva production returns to normal - as digestive system goes back into action

S: Saliva production decreases - food does not need to be consumed and the digestive system decreases in activity; saliva is not required

Question 13

PSNS & SNS effects: Sweat Glands

Answer 13

P: Sweat glands return to normal rate of production

S: Sweat gland increases production - helps to cool the body down

Question 14

PSNS & SNS effects: Heart

Answer 14

P: Heart rate returns back to normal - ensuring blood is pumped around the body at an adequate rate

S: Heart rate increases - allows blood to pump faster around the body to prepare for response

Question 15

PSNS & SNS effects: Lungs

Answer 15

P: Return to normal breathing rate

S: Lungs increase breathing rate - bronchioles dilate, allows heart to pump faster and allows blood to be oxygenated

Question 16

PSNS & SNS effects: Stomach

Answer 16

P: Increases acid - to restore nutrient and energy levels

S: Decreases acid release and muscles relax - to conserve energy and not make you hungry during stressor

Question 17

PSNS & SNS effects: Liver

Answer 17

P: Reduces release of glucose - to keep stored when needed

S: Releases glucose - provides quick energy to run

Question 18

PSNS & SNS effects: Bladder

Answer 18

P: Bladder muscles constrict

S: Bladder muscles relax

Question 19

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Answer 19

Carries information from sensory organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc) along sensory/afferent neurons to the CNS
Carries information from the CNS along motor/efferent neurons to skeletal muscles
Usually, voluntary or conscious movement

Question 20

HOW THE NERVOUS SYSTEM COMMUNICATES

Answer 20

Sensory receptors pick up changes in external stimuli (e.g. feels cold)
Afferent, sensory neurons in the PNS take the message from receptors to the CNS
Information reaches interneurons in the spinal cord/ brain, which decides on action to take (e.g. chooses to put on a jacket)
Efferent neurons in the PNS take the message from the CNS to muscles, glands or organs
Muscles, glands or organs will react (e.g. put on the jacket)

Question 21

Neurotransmitters

Answer 21

A signaling molecule that increases or decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential
Have an immediate, short-lasting effect on the following neuron
Glutamate: excitatory (increases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential)
GABA: inhibitory (decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential)

Question 22

Neuromodulators

Answer 22

Work with neurotransmitters to allow the synaptic transmission to be enhanced/decreased
Have a long-lasting, widespread impact on many neurons
Dopamine: an NM that results in the pleasure/drive sensation, is associated with addictive behaviours and regulates smooth voluntary movement.
Serotonin: an NM that regulates mood, appetite, emotional processing, memory, sleep and attention (i.e. low serotonin, mood decreases, impulsivity increases, daytime sleep increases)

Question 23

NEUROTRANSMITTER TRANSMISSION

Answer 23

Neurotransmitter is synthesised by the pre-synaptic neuron
Neurotransmitters stored in the terminal buttons are then released into the synaptic gap/neural synapse
Some of these neurotransmitters may then bind to the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron in a lock and key shape (NT acts as a key, complementary-shaped receptor acts as a lock)

Question 24

ANATOMY OF A NEURONS

Answer 24

• dendrites → receptors receive incoming sensory/neural information
• axon → long fibre that generates the action potential
• myelin sheath → insulates and allows for fast transmission, protects the electrical impulse
• soma → allow cells to function
• node of Ranvier → gaps between myelin sheath
• axon terminals → receives electrical impulse and sends to terminal buttons
• terminal buttons → holds the neurotransmitters that will be released to the next neuron
• synaptic gap/cleft → where the neurotransmitters are released from the terminal button

Question 25

EXAMPLE EFFECT OF DOPAMINE

Answer 25

When exposed to the smell, sight or thought of coffee, dopamine is released The reward pathway is stimulated This modulates the decision-making parts of the brain Prompting behaviour to drink coffee (NOTE: teminology)

Question 26

SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

Answer 26

developmental plasticity: occurs across the lifespan (mainly childhood) where neurons are sprouted or pruned adaptive plasticity: occurs as a result of learning something new or brain damage as neurons sprout branches and reroute neural pathways

Question 27

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Answer 27

long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections through repeated stimulation of the same neural pathways Mainly involves sprouting (the growth of new branches/terminals) - more glutamate is produced by pre-synaptic - more terminals in the pre-synaptic neuron - more dendrites in the post-synaptic neuron - more glutamate receptors in post-synaptic

Question 28

Long-Term Depression (LTD)

Answer 28

long-lasting, repeated weakening of synaptic connection due to prolonged low stimulation of neural pathways Mainly involves pruning (branches and terminals being cut/removed) - number of receptors on post-synaptic decrease - number of dendrites on post-synaptic neurons decreases - fewer neurotransmitters are released

Question 29

LTD AND LTP IN LEARNING

Answer 29

there would be a weakening of the neural connections of the old task due to infrequent use (LTD) neural pathways that represent how to complete the new task would modify and strengthen due to repeated activation as they continue to learn the new task (LTP) rerouting: new connections are made between active neurons to create alternative neural pathways (usually after damage)

Question 30

stress

Answer 30

a challenge to a person’s capacity to adapt that as it may be physically and/or emotionally demanding

Question 31

internal stressor

Answer 31

stimulus from within the person's body (i.e. hunger, illness, low self-esteem)

Question 32

external stressor

Answer 32

stimulus outside a person’s body (i.e. exams, arguments, financial difficulty)

Question 33

acute stress

Answer 33

lasts for a short time, causes the sympathetic nervous system to dominate, and a fight-flight-freeze response is initiated as a survival mechanism. During this, adrenaline is also released to provide energy for the body to survive.

Question 34

chronic stress

Answer 34

when the stressor is not dealt with, is severe or ongoing, cortisol is released

Question 35

CORTISOL

Answer 35

A stress hormone released due to prolonged stress Provides energy for the body to deal with the stressor (through increasing blood glucose levels) It acts as a painkiller Suppresses the immune system; hence, the long-term presence of cortisol in the bloodstream can cause individuals to be more susceptible to colds and illnesses

Question 36

GUT-BRAIN AXIS

Answer 36

a bi-directional relationship between CNS and the enteric nervous system (i.e. gut microbiota affects the CNS, and CNS functioning affects the gut)

Question 37

gut microbiota

Answer 37

living organisms found in the gut that maintain gut health and function (healthy microbiota have high diversity and population, thereby resistance to disturbances such as antibiotics)

Question 38

gut dysbiosis

Answer 38

imbalance in the gut that can reduce our ability to resist stressors (can make individuals more susceptible to mental health issues such as depression and anxiety)

Question 39

the vagus nerve

Answer 39

connects the brain to organs within the autonomic NS, including the gut gut health can be improved by taking probiotics, improving diet or decreasing stressors affecting the body

Question 40

Alarm reaction

Answer 40

Shock: when first aware of the stressor, the body goes into temporary shock, and the parasympathetic NS is dominant. This is why we momentarily freeze when reacting to a stressor (blood pressure and temperature will drop). During this, the ability to deal with the stressor falls below the normal level. Countershock: sympathetic NS begins to dominate, adrenaline is released, and the fight-flight-freeze response is activated (heart rate increases). During this, the ability to deal with stressors increases.

Question 41

Resistance

Answer 41

Initial intense arousal begins to decrease, unnecessary processes (i.e. digestion) shut down, and cortisol is released. During this, the ability to deal with stressors increases.

Question 42

Exhaustion

Answer 42

If stress has not been dealt with for a long time, resources in the body begin to deplete (high fatigue, high risk of mental disorders). During this, the body can no longer deal with stressors above normal levels and can cause individuals to become very sick.

Question 43

Strengths of the GAS Model

Answer 43

Considers physiological response over time Well-established link between chronic stress and disease while testing the model (the model was tested on rats many years ago, and when faced with prolonged stress, the rats ended up dying) The model established that the greater the intensity of perceived stress, the greater the physiological response

Question 44

Weaknesses of the GAS Model

Answer 44

Rats were used in the testing of the model, and as their brain function varies from that of a human, the model cannot be generalised to humans. The model does not account for individual differences in responses Overemphasis on biological process without consideration of other factors e.g. social, psychological, environmental conditions

Question 45

LAZARUS AND FOLKMAN TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF STRESS AND COPING (TMSC)

Answer 45

Primary appraisal is it benign-positive, irrelevant or stressful? If stressful, is it harmful (damage has happened), threat (damage may occur) or challenge (opportunity for positive outcome)? Secondary appraisal if it is a threat, do you have the resources to cope? if no: stress if yes: reduced/eliminates stress or reappraisal emotion-focused coping: denial, reframing, optimism problem-focused coping: seeking information or advice, taking action

Question 46

Strengths of the TMSC Model

Answer 46

Accounts for individual differences Allows for the fact that stressors can change over time Study is based on human subjects which reduces generalisation errors Allows for consideration of cognitive processes within the stress response

Question 47

Weaknesses of the TMSC Model

Answer 47

Difficult to measure as appraisals are subjective, often unconscious and is difficult for people to articulate their appraisals overlap between primary and secondary appraisal, and their potential to occur simultaneously is neglected Underestimnates role of physiological processes in influencing stress response

Question 48

COPING

Answer 48

approach strategy: confronts stressor avoidance strategy: evades the stressor Factors that influence our coping strategies: self-efficacy: belief in our own ability to cope resilience: ability to bounce back

Question 49

context-specific effectiveness

Answer 49

if the strategy can meet the specific demands of the situation and suits the person using it

Question 50

coping flexibility

Answer 50

if a person can adapt and modify their chosen strategy when it is not working