Ultimate Study Guide Flashcards
(1148 cards)
1
Q
Ecosystem
A
A community of living (biotic) organisms interacting with the non-living (abiotic) components of their environment as a system through various nutrients and energy cycles.
2
Q
Organism
A
A living thing that can function on its own.
3
Q
Species
A
Organisms that resemble each other; are similar in genetic makeup, chemistry, and behavior; and are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
4
Q
Interspecific
A
occurring between different species.
5
Q
Population
A
Organisms of the same species that interact with each other and occupy a specific area.
6
Q
Community
A
Population of different species.
7
Q
Ecological Niche
A
A particular area within a habitat occupied by an organism, as well as the function of that organism within its ecological community.
8
Q
Physical Environment
A
non-living aspects of our surroundings that affect living organisms and ecosystems
9
Q
Niche
A
Unique adaptations, position and role of an organism within an ecosystem
10
Q
Symbiosis
A
any type of close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms of the same or different species
11
Q
Amensalism
A
The interaction between two species whereby one species suffers and the other species is not affected.
12
Q
Commensalism
A
The interaction between two species whereby one organism benefits and the other species is not affected.
13
Q
Competition
A
Interaction between organisms when they share limited resources in an ecosystem
14
Q
Intraspecific
A
Competition between members of the same species.
15
Q
Interspecific
A
Competition between members of different species.
16
Q
Predator–Prey Relationships
A
Interaction between two species where one hunts and consumes the other for food and where most competition takes place
17
Q
Mutualism
A
The interaction between two species whereby both species benefit.
18
Q
Parasitism
A
The interaction between two species whereby one species is benefited, and the other species is harmed.
19
Q
Opportunistic Predators
A
Organisms that adapt their diet based on the availability and ease of capture of their prey
20
Q
Specialist predators
A
organisms that are highly adept at hunting and consuming a specific prey species, or even just a specific life stage of that species.
21
Q
Saprottrophism
A
Organisms that obtain their nutrients from dead or decaying plants or animals through the absorption of soluble organic compounds.
22
Q
Law of Tolerance
A
the existence, abundance, and distribution of species depend on the tolerance level of each species to both physical and chemical factors.
23
Q
Limiting Factor
A
Any abiotic factor that limits or prevents the growth of a population.
24
Q
Predator-prey cycles
A
Based on a feeding relationship between two species
25
Morphological Partitioning
When two species share the same resource but have evolved slightly different structures to utilize the same resource
26
Spatial Partitioning
When competing species use the same resource by occupying different areas or habitats within the range of occurrence of the resource
27
Temporal Partitioning
When two species eliminate direct competition by utilizing the same resource at different times
28
Biomes
Major regional or global biotic communities characterized by dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climates
29
Deserts
A region characterized by extremely low precipitation
30
Arctic tundra
characterized by extremely cold temperatures, short growing seasons, permafrost, and treeless plains
31
Succulents
Plants that have fleshy leaves or stems that store water.
32
Cactus
Plants that secrete toxins into the soil to prevent interspecific competition and have sharp spines that create shade, reduce drying airflow, discourage herbivores, and reflect sunlight.
33
Wildflowers
Plants that depend on water for germination, have short life spans, and perform their entire life cycle from seed to flower to seed within a single growing season
34
Desert Animals
Species that are generally small (small surface area), often nocturnal, and spend most of their time in undergrown burrows when cold
35
Aestivation
summer hibernation
36
Forests
Covers about one-third of Earth's land surface and accounts for 75% of gross primary productivity and plant biomass.
37
Closed canopy
When tree crowns cover more than 20% of the ground’s surface, forming a thick layer that blocks sunlight from reaching the ground
38
Open canopy
When tree crowns cover less than 20% of the ground surface, allowing more sunlight to reach the ground
39
Tropical Rainforests
Lush, evergreen forests found in warm, humid regions near the equator, characterized by tall trees, abundant rainfall, and incredible biodiversity.
40
Overstory
The uppermost trees in a forest.
41
Understory
Layer made up of young trees, short species of trees, shrubs, and soft-stemmed plants.
42
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Vibrant ecosystems found in mid-latitude regions around the world, and characterized by distinct seasonal changes, with green foliage in spring and summer and display of colors and leaf loss in autumn.
43
Temperate Coniferous Forest
vast, evergreen ecosystems found in the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and characterized by tall, cone-bearing trees that remain green throughout the year, even during harsh winters. also known as southern taiga/boreal forests
44
Taiga
Largest terrestrial biome; found in northern Eurasia, North America, Scandinavia, and two-thirds of Siberia.
45
Southern Taiga (Boreal Forest)
Consists primarily of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves, such as pines, spruces, and larches.
46
Northern Taiga
Environment that gets more barren as it approaches the tree line and the tundra biome.
47
Grasslands
Lands dominated by grasses rather than by large shrubs or trees.
48
Savannas
Grasslands with scattered individual trees and cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America, and India.
49
Temperate Grasslands
Environment where grasses are the dominant vegetation, while trees and large shrubs are absent.
50
Tundra
Environment that has extremely low temperatures, low biotic diversity, and simple vegetation structure.
51
Arctic tundra
A treeless biome found in the far northern regions of the Earth, primarily encircling the Arctic Ocean characterized by extremely cold temperatures, short growing seasons, permafrost (permanently frozen ground), and sparse vegetation.
52
Permafrost
Layer of permanently frozen subsoil.
53
Alpine tundra
A treeless biome found at high elevations above the treeline, typically on mountain ranges around the world
54
Antarctica
Continent with the coldest climate on Earth.
55
Ice Sheet
Formed from compressed snow that rarely melts.
56
Krill
Key food source in arctic ecosystems and serves as food for many predators.
57
Convection
The circular motion that occurs when warmer air or liquid rises, while the cooler air or liquid sinks.
58
Thermohaline currents
Drive a conveyor belt of ocean water that moves constantly, unlike most surface currents, which are driven by winds.
59
Littoral Zone ( intertidal zone)
Part of the ocean that is closest to the shore.
60
Neretic Zone
Also known as the sublittoral zone , this zone extends to the edge of the continental shelf.
61
Photic Zone
The uppermost layer of water in a lake or ocean that is exposed to sunlight down to the depth where 1% of surface sunlight is available.
62
Photic Zone
The layer just above the depth where the rate of carbon dioxide uptake by plants is equal to the rate of carbon dioxide production by animals.
63
Corals
Marine invertebrates that typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps.
64
Polyps
Small, sac-like animals with a set of tentacles surrounding a central mouth opening and an exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate at the base.
65
Zooxanthellae
Single-celled dinoflagellates that live in a symbiotic relationship with most reef-building corals
66
Fringing reefs
Most common reef type that grows near the coastline around islands and continents and are separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons.
67
Barrier reefs
Reefs that grow parallel to the coastline and are separated by deeper, wider lagoons. At their shallowest point, they can reach the water’s surface, forming a “barrier” to navigation.
68
Atolls
Rings of coral that create protected lagoons and are usually located in the middle of the sea.
69
Lakes
Large natural bodies of standing freshwater are formed when precipitation, runoff, or groundwater seepage fills depressions in the Earth’s surface.
70
Artificial lakes
Strctures constructed for hydroelectric power generation, recreational purposes, industrial and agricultural use, and/or domestic water supply.
71
Benthic Zone
The bottom of a lake where organisms can tolerate cool temperatures and low oxygen levels.
72
Limnetic Zone
A well-lit, open surface water, farther from shore, extends to a depth penetrated by light, occupied by phytoplankton, zooplankton, and higher animals; produces food and oxygen that supports most of a lake’s consumers
73
Littoral Zone
Ecological zone found in coastal environments where land and water meet
74
Profundal Zone
Deepest layer of freshwater ecosystems that lies below the photic zone (where sunlight penetrates) and is characterized by cold temperatures, darkness, and low oxygen levels.
75
Oligotrophic (Young Lake)
Aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems with low levels of available nutrients characterized by limited plant growth, low organic matter, and high oxygen content due to the lack of excess organic decomposition.
76
Mesotrophic (Middle-Aged Lake)
Aquatic ecosystems characterized by moderate levels of nutrients. These environments strike a balance between nutrient-poor and nutrient-rich conditions, supporting a diverse range of organisms
77
Eutrophic (Old Lake)
Aquatic ecosystems with an excessive abundance of nutrients leading to increased plant growth, often resulting in harmful algal blooms and various environmental challenges.
78
Stratification
Formation of distinct layers within a body of water with varying densities due to differences in temperature and salinity
79
Hypolimnion
deepest layer of thermally stratified lakes
80
Seasonal Turnover
exchange of surface and bottom water in a lake or pond twice a year.
81
Fall Turnover
The natural phenomenon in stratified lakes of mixing of warmer surface water with colder bottom water within the lake which leads to a more uniform temperature and distribution of nutrients.
82
Spring Turnover
The natural phenomenon in stratified lakes of mixing cooler surface water with warm bottom water within the lake which leads to a more uniform temperature and distribution of nutrients.
83
Wetlands
Areas that are covered with water at some point in the year and that support aquatic plants.
84
Source Zone
Zone that contains headwaters or headwater streams and often begins as springs or snowmelt of cold, clear water with little sediment and relatively few nutrients.
85
Transition Zone
Zone that contains slower, warmer, wider, and lower-elevation moving streams, which eventually join to form tributaries.
86
Floodplain Zone
Flat area of land adjacent to a river, stream, or other body of water that is susceptible to flooding during periods of high water levels.
87
Riparian Areas
Lands adjacent to creeks, lakes, rivers, and streams that support vegetation dependent upon free water in the soil.
88
Carbon
fundamental element exchanged among the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere and is the basic building block of life and found in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
89
Ocean Acidification
The ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, disrupting the creation of coral reefs and the viability of externally fertilized egg cells; Occurs when atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid,
90
Nitrogen
Element that takes up 78% of the atmosphere. Needed for photosynthesis
91
Nitrogen Cycle
A biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere
92
Nitrogen Fixation
When atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate ions (NO3–), which are biologically usable forms of nitrogen.
93
Natural Cycling of Nitrogen
Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrogen oxides by lightning and deposited in the soil by rain, where it is assimilated by plants and either eaten by animals or decomposed back to elemental nitrogen by bacteria
94
Rhizobium
A nitrogen-fixing bacteria
95
Nitrification
When ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrite (NO2–) and nitrate (NO3–), which are the most useful forms of nitrogen to plants.
96
Assimilation
When plants absorb ammonia (NH3), ammonium ions (NH4+), and nitrate ions (NO3–) through their roots.
97
Ammonification
When decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms and wastes, which include nitrates, uric acid, proteins, and nucleic acids, to ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+)—biologically useful forms.
98
Denitrification
When anaerobic bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites (NO2–), nitrates (NO3–), nitrogen gas (N2), and nitrous oxide (N2O) to continue the cycle.
99
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
A greenhouse gas breaks down and destroys atmospheric ozone in the stratosphere.
100
Phosphorus
Element essential for the production of nucleotides, ATP, fats in cell membranes, bones, teeth, and shells.
101
Water cycle
the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth
102
Dynamic Equilibrium
When the rate of evaporation equals the rate of precipitation.
103
Condensation
The conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid
104
Evaporation
The process of turning from a liquid into vapor
105
Evapotranspiration
The process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants
106
Infiltration
The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil
107
Precipitation
Rain, snow, sleet, or hail that falls to the ground
108
Runoff
Part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating
109
Capillary Action
A result of hydrogen bonding, helps tree roots take up water, allowing trees to grow as large as they do.
110
Floating ice
Essential to life near the poles, results from the different ways water molecules arrange themselves at different temperatures.
111
Aquifer
A geologic formation that contains water in quantities sufficient to support a well or spring.
112
Confined “artesian well” aquifer
An aquifer below the land surface that is saturated with water.
113
Recharge zone
The surface area above an aquifer that supplies water to the aquifer
114
Unsaturated zone
The zone immediately below the land surface where the open spaces in the soil contain both water and air, but are not totally saturated with water
115
Water table
The level below which the ground is saturated with water
116
Land subsidence
The sinking of land that results from groundwater extraction.
117
Water shortages
Condition where the demand for water exceeds the available supply in a particular region or at a specific point in time
118
Saltwater intrusion
The movement of saltwater into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to contamination.
119
Photosynthesis
When plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use light energy to produce carbohydrates and other organic compounds
120
chlorophyll
A pigment molecule found within chloroplasts
121
Chloroplasts
specialized organelles in plant cells responsible for capturing energy from sunlight
122
Trophic Level
The position an organism occupies in a food chain; the number of steps it takes from the chain's start.
123
Food web
The natural interconnection of food chains.
124
Ecological pyramids
Show ecosystem properties by placing primary producers at the base and decreasing energy as species move away from them.
125
Second Law of Thermodynamics
States that as energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it is wasted.
126
Entropy
A natural tendency of any isolated system to degenerate from an ordered state into a more disordered state.
127
Heterotrophs
Organisms dependent on photosynthetic organisms.
128
Cellular Respiration
the process by which organisms break down glucose and other organic molecules to release energy
129
Glucose
Compound oxidized by the cells to produce carbon dioxide, water, and chemical energy during cellular respiration
130
Sunlight
It is the ultimate source of energy required for most biological processes.
131
10% Rule
States that energy is lost mostly as heat from one stage to the next.
132
Productivity
The rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem (mass per unit surface area (or volume) per unit time)
133
Primary Productivity
Productivity of autotrophs
134
Secondary Productivity
Productivity of heterotrophs
135
Secondary production
The generation of biomass by heterotrophic consumers in a system
136
Biomass pyramid
Shows how much organic mass is within each trophic level.
137
Energy Pyramids
Show the proportion of energy passed from one trophic level to the next-level consumers in an ecosystem
138
Gross primary production (GPP)
The rate at which plants capture and fix a given amount of chemical energy as biomass in a given length of time.
139
Net primary production (NPP)
The remaining fixed energy is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy.
140
Biodiversity
The variability among species, between species, and of ecosystems
141
Genetic Diversity
The range of all genetic traits, both expressed and recessive, that make up the gene pool for a particular species
142
Species Diversity
Number of different species that inhabit a specific area
143
Ecosystem Diversity
The range of habitats that can be found in a specific area
144
Population Bottleneck
Large reduction in the size of a single population due to a catastrophic environmental event
145
Minimum Viable Population Size
The number of individuals remaining after the bottleneck and how that compares to the smallest possible size at which a population can exist without facing extinction from a natural disaster
146
Generalist Species
Species that live in different types of environments and have varied diets
147
Specialist Species
Species that require unique resources and often have a very limited diet
148
Species Richness
The number of different species (diversity) represented in an ecological community or region
149
Island
A suitable habitat for a specific ecosystem that is surrounded by a large area of unsuitable habitat
150
Island Biogeography
Examining the factors that affect the richness and diversity of species living in these isolated natural communities
151
Theory of Island Biogeography
Proposes that the number of species found on an "island" is determined by immigration and extinction of isolated populations
152
Degree of Isolation
Distance to the nearest island or mainland
153
Habitat Fragmentation
When a habitat is broken into pieces by development, industry, logging, roads, etc., and can cause an edge effect
154
Ecosystem
A community of organisms that interact with each other and their environment and that can change over time
155
Episodic Process
Occurring occasionally and at irregular intervals
156
Periodic Process
Occurring at repeated intervals
157
Random Process
Lacking a regular pattern
158
Adaptation
The biological mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environments or to changes in their current environment
159
Behavioral Adaptation
Learned or instinctive changes in an organism's behavior that help it survive and reproduce in its environment
160
Physical Adaptation
Physiological or biochemical changes within an organism that improve its ability to survive and reproduce in its environment
161
Structural Adaptation
Physical changes in an organism's anatomy or morphology that enhance its survival and reproduction in its environment.
162
Ecological succession
The gradual and orderly process of ecosystem development brought about by changes in community composition and the production of a climax community and describes the changes in an ecosystem through time and disturbance
163
Facilitation
When one species modifies an environment to the extent that it meets the needs of another species
164
Inhibition
When one species modifies the environment to an extent that is not suitable for another species
165
Tolerance
When species are not affected by the presence of other species
166
Pioneer Species
Earlier successional plants, generalists
167
r-Strategists
Mature rapidly; short-lived species; number of organisms within a species is high; low biodiversity; niche generalists
168
K-Strategists
Mature slowly; long-lived; number of organisms within a species is lower; greater biodiversity; niche specialists
169
Ecological succession
The process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time, which can be millions of years in the case of primary succession or decades in the case of secondary succession
170
Primary succession
The evolution of a biological communitys ecological structure in which plants and animals first colonize a barren, lifeless habitat
171
Secondary succession
A type of ecological succession in which plants and animals recolonize a habitat after a major disturbance
172
Ecological disturbance
An event or force that can result in mortality to organisms and changes in the spatial patterns in their ecosystem and plays a significant role in shaping the structure of individual populations within the ecosystem
173
Succession
A directional, non-seasonal, cumulative change in the types of plant species that occupy a given area over time, involving colonization, establishment, and extinction; shows how an ecosystem changes after an ecological disturbance
174
Keystone species
A species whose presence contributes to a diversity of life and whose extinction would lead to the extinction of other forms of life
175
Indicator Species
Organisms whose presence, absence, or abundance reflects a specific environmental condition and can indicate the health of an ecosystem
176
Global Warming
long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system
177
Short Term Adaptations
Non-hereditary adaptations that develop in response to temporary changes in the environment
178
Long-term Adaptations
Adaptations that may involve DNA changing over long time periods in response to natural selection involving evolutionary processes.
179
early stages of succession
Stage in succession when gross productivity is low due to the initial environmental conditions and low numbers of producers.
180
later stages of succession
Stage in succession near the climax community, gross productivity (GP) may be high, but increased respiration (R) balances it, so net productivity approaches zero and the gross production respiration (GP:R) ratio approaches 1:1.
181
Survivorship curves
Shows age-distribution characteristics of species, reproductive strategies, and life history
182
Reproductive success
Measured by how many organisms can mature and reproduce, with each survivorship curve representing a balance between natural resource limitations and interspecific and intraspecific competition
183
Carrying capacity (K)
Refers to the number of individuals that can be supported sustainably in a given area
184
Population Dispersal Pattern
How individuals or species of animal become distributed in different spaces over certain periods
185
Clumped
When some areas within a habitat are dense with organisms, while other areas contain few members
186
Random
Occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent
187
Uniform
When space is maximized between individuals to minimize competition
188
Biotic potential
The maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under optimum environmental conditions
189
Environmental Resistance
Any factor that inhibits an increase in the number of organisms in the population
190
J-Curve
A curve that represents population growth occurs in a new environment when the population density of an organism increases rapidly in an exponential or logarithmic form, but then stops abruptly as environmental resistance or another factor suddenly impacts the population growth
191
S-Curve
A curve that represents when, in a new environment, the population density of an organism initially increases slowly but then stabilizes due to the finite amount of resources available
192
Limiting Factor
Any resource or environmental condition that limits the abundance, distribution, and/or growth of a population
193
Density-dependent limiting factors
Factors whose effects on the size or growth of the population vary with the density of the population
194
Density-independent factors
Factors that limit the size of a population, and their effects are not dependent on the number of individuals in the population
195
Rule of 70
Explains the time periods involved in exponential population growth occurring at a constant rate
196
Doubling time
Amount of time it takes for a population to double in size [70/% growth rate]
197
Birth Rate (%)
[(total births/total population)] × 100
198
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
[(b ÷ p) × 1,000]
199
Death Rate (%)
[(total deaths/total population)]× 100
200
Crude Death Rate (CDR)
[(d ÷ p) × 1,000]
201
Emigration
number leaving a population
202
Global Population Growth Rate (%)
[(CBR – CDR)]/10
203
Immigration
number entering a population
204
National Population Growth Rate (&)
[(CBR + immigration) – (CDR + emigration)]/10
205
Percent Rate of Change
[(new # - old #)/old #] × 100
206
Population Density
Total population size/total area
207
Population Growth Rate (%)
[(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)]/total population
208
Age-structure diagrams
Diagram determined by birth rate, generation time, death rate, and sex ratios
209
Pyramid-shaped age-structure diagram
Diagram that indicates that the population has high birth rates and the majority of the population is in the reproductive age group
210
Bell shape age-structure diagram
Diagram that indicates that pre-reproductive and reproductive age groups are more nearly equal, with the post-reproductive group being smallest due to mortality
211
Urn-Shaped age-structure diagram
Diagram that indicates that the post-reproductive group is largest and the pre-reproductive group is smallest, a result of the birth rates falling below the death rate, and is characteristic of declining populations
212
Total fertility rate (TFR)
The average number of children that each woman will have during her lifetime
213
Frontier Worldview
Viewed undeveloped land as a hostile wilderness to be cleared and planted, then exploited for its resources as quickly as possible
214
Planetary Management
Beliefs that as the planets most important species, we are in charge of Earth
215
Earth Wisdom
Beliefs that nature exists for all Earths species and we are not in charge of Earth; resources are limited and should not be wasted
216
Demographic Transition
It is the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country or region develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system
217
Liebig’s law of the minimum
Even if all other factors are favorable, the one that is least favorable will dictate the growth, abundance, or distribution of the population of a species.
218
Positive Feedback Loops
Loop that stimulates change and is responsible for sudden or rapid changes within ecosystems.
219
Negative Feedback Loops
Loop that often provides stability. Limiting factors can cause a negative feedback loop because populations cannot exceed the ecosystem's carrying capacity.
220
Carrying Capacity
Denotes the point at which the upward growth curve begins to level out
221
Density-Dependent
When growth rate depends on the number of organisms in the population.
222
Plate Tectonic Theory
States that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into a small number of plates that float on and travel independently over the mantle, with much of Earth’s seismic activity occurring at the boundaries of these plates.
223
Seafloor Spreading Theory
Geologic process in which tectonic plates —large slabs of Earth's lithosphere —split apart from each other.
224
Subduction Zones
Areas on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move toward each other, with one sliding underneath the other and moving down into the mantle.
225
Convergent Boundaries
Where two plates slide toward each other.
226
Divergent Boundaries
When two plates slide apart from each other.
227
Island Arc
A curved chain of volcanic islands rising from the deep seafloor and near a continent.
228
undersea trench
Where the descending plate dips downward.
229
Transform boundaries
Where plates slide past each other in opposite directions.
230
Soils
Thin layer on top of most of Earth’s land surface.
231
Surface Litter
Leaves and partially decomposed organic debris.
232
Topsoil
Organic matter, living organisms, and inorganic materials; it is very thick in grass lands.
233
Zone of leaching
Dissolved and suspended materials move downward.
234
Subsoil
Soil that tends to be yellowish due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humic compounds, and clay leached from A and E horizons.
235
Weathered Parent Material
Partially broken-down inorganic materials.
236
Climate
Measured by precipitation and temperature, which results in partial weathering of the parent material, which forms the substrate for soil.
237
Parent Material
The rock and minerals from which the soil derives.
238
Topography
The physical characteristics of the location
239
Soil Erosion
Movement of weathered rock and/or soil components from one place to another caused by flowing water, wind, and human activity.
240
Landslides
Occur when masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope.
241
Mudslides
A common type of fast-moving landslide that tends to flow in channels.
242
Igneous Rocks
Rocks formed by cooling and classified by their silica content.
243
Intrusive igneous rocks
Rocks that solidify deep underground, cool slowly, and have a large-grained texture.
244
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Rocks that solidify on or near the surface, cool quickly, and have a fine-grained smooth texture.
245
Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks formed by intense heat and pressure, high quartz content.
246
Sedimentary
Rocks formed by the piling and cementing of various materials over time in low-lying areas.
247
Soil Composition
Gravel, Sand, Loam, Silt, Clay
248
Humus
Dark organic material that forms in soil when plant and animal matter decays.
249
Aeration
How well a soil is able to absorb oxygen, water, and nutrients.
250
Degree of Soil Compaction
Measured by dry unit weight and depends on the water content and compaction effort.
251
Nutrient-Holding Capacity
The ability of soil to absorb and retain nutrients so they will be available to the roots of plants.
252
Permeability
The measure of the capacity of the soil to allow water and oxygen to pass through it.
253
pH
The measure of how acidic or basic soil is.
254
Pore Size
Describes the space between soil particles.
255
Water Holding Capacity
Controlled primarily by the soil texture and the soil organic matter content.
256
Soil Texture
A reflection of the particle size distribution of soil.
257
Water holding capacity formula
% Water-Holing Capacity = (V_w/V_t) x 100%
258
Soil Food Web
The community of organisms living all or part of their lives in the soil
259
Great Oxidation Event (GOE)
2.5 billion years ago killed almost all life on Earth. It was a time period when the Earth’s atmosphere and the shallow ocean experienced a rise in oxygen.
260
Atmosphere Composition
NItrogen, Oxygen, Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide
261
Troposphere
The lowest portion of Earth’s atmosphere, 0–6 miles (0–10 km) above Earth’s surface.
262
Stratosphere
Part of Earth’s atmosphere that is located 6–30 miles (10–50 km) above Earth’s surface.
263
Weather
Caused by the movement or transfer of heat energy, which results from the unequal heating of Earth’s surface by the sun.
264
Climate
The average weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.
265
Convection
The primary way energy is transferred from hotter to colder regions in Earth’s atmosphere and is the primary determinant of weather patterns.
266
Heat Index (HI)
The measure of how warm it feels when factoring in relative humidity.
267
Air Mass
A large body of air that has similar temperature and moisture content.
268
Albedo
An expression of the ability of surfaces to reflect sunlight.
269
Altitude
The distance above sea level.
270
Carbon Cycle
The process in which carbon atoms continually travel from the atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere.
271
Front
The boundary when two different air masses meet
272
Cold Front
The leading edge of an advancing mass of cold air and is associated with thunderhead clouds, high surface winds, and thunderstorms.
273
Warm Front
The boundary between an advancing warm air mass and the cooler one it is replacing.
274
Stationary Front
A pair of air masses, neither of which is strong enough to replace the other, that tend to remain in essentially the same area for extended periods of time.
275
Greenhouse Effect
the process through which heat is trapped near Earth's surface by substances known as 'greenhouse gases.'
276
Latitude
The measurement of the distance of a location on Earth from the equator.
277
Moisture Content of Air
The primary determinant of plant growth and distribution and is a major determinant of biome type.
278
Land Breeze
When the land cools down faster than the sea, resulting in the air above the land becoming denser than the air over the sea.
279
Sea Breeze
When the land warms up faster than the sea, causing the air above it to become less dense.
280
High-Pressure Weather Systems
When there is higher pressure at the center than around them, so winds blow away.
281
Trade Winds
Prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics near Earth’s equator, within the troposphere or lower portion of Earth’s atmosphere.
282
Wind Speed
Determined by pressure differences between air masses.
283
Wind Direction
Direction from which wind originated.
284
Easterly
Wind coming from the east.
285
Westerly
Wind coming from the west.
286
Coriolis Effect
A phenomenon wherein earth’s rotation on its axis causes winds to not travel straight, which causes prevailing winds in the Northern Hemisphere to spiral clockwise out from high-pressure areas and spiral counterclockwise toward low-pressure areas.
287
Hadley Air Circulation
When air heated near the equator rises and spreads out north and south. After cooling in the upper atmosphere, the air sinks back to Earth’s surface within the subtropical climate zone.
288
Ferrel Air Circulation Cells
Develop between 30° and 60° north and south latitudes. The descending winds of the Hadley cells diverge as moist tropical air moves toward the poles in winds known as the westerlies.
289
Polar Cells
These cells originate as icy-cold, dry, dense air that descends from the troposphere to the ground.
290
Polar Vortex
A low-pressure zone embedded in a large mass of very cold air that lies atop both poles.
291
Hurricanes
Term used in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific to describe a tropical storm
292
Cyclones
Term used in South Pacific and Indian Ocean to describe a tropical storm
293
Typhoons
Term used in Northwest Pacific to describe a tropical storm
294
Eye
An area of descending air and low pressure, in the center of the hurricane
295
Storm Surge
A rise in sea level that occurs during tropical cyclones, typhoons, or hurricanes.
296
Tornadoes
Wirling masses of air with wind speeds close to 300 miles per hour (485 kph).
297
Monsoons
Strong, often violent winds that change direction with the season.
298
Monsoon winds
Winds that blow from cold to warm regions because cold air takes up more space than warm air.
299
Watershed
A land area that drains rainfall and snowmelt into a lake, ocean, or aquifer.
300
Mississippi River watershed
The largest watershed in the United States, which drains more than one million square miles or land.
301
Watershed Management
Reduces pesticides and fertilizers that wash off farm fields and into nearby waterbodies by using land, forest, and water resources in ways that don't harm plants and animals.
302
Tropic of Cancer
The northernmost latitude reached by the overhead sun.
303
Tropic of Capricorn
The southernmost latitude reached by the overhead sun.
304
Mountain Ranges
Natural barriers to the smooth movement of air currents across continents.
305
Rain Shadow Effect
The drier situation which is directly responsible for the plants that grow there, which in turn affects the animals that live there.
306
Upwelling
When prevailing winds, produced through the Coriolis effect and moving clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, push warmer, nutrient-poor surface waters away from the coastline
307
El Niño
Air pressure patterns reverse direction, causing trade winds to decrease in strength. This causes the normal flow of water away from western South America to decrease “pile up.”
308
La Niña
Trade winds that blow west across the tropical Pacific are stronger than normal. This then results in an increase in the upwelling off of South America. This then results in cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures off of South America.
309
Garrett Hardin
Wrote "The Tragedy of the Commons "in 1968.
310
The Tragedy of the Commons
The essay parallels what is happening worldwide in regards to resource depletion and pollution.
311
IPAT Formula
I = P × A × T
312
CAFOs
Release several types of gas emissions- ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and particulate matter.
313
Clear-Cutting
When all of the trees in an area are cut at the same time
314
Edge Effect
Refers to how the local environment changes along some type of boundary or edge
315
Forest Edges
Created when trees are harvested, particularly when they are clear-cut
316
Tree Canopies
It provides the ground below with shade and maintain a cooler and moister environment below
317
Deforestation
The conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas, which are then used for grain and grass fields mining, petroleum extraction, fuel wood cutting, commercial logging, tree plantations, or urban development
318
Agricultural Productivity
It implies greater output with less input
319
Overgrazing
A plant is considered overgrazed when it is re-grazed before the roots recover, which can reduce root growth by up to 90%
320
Fertilizers
Provides plants with the nutrients needed to grow healthy and strong
321
Inorganic Fertilizers
A fertilizer mined from mineral deposits or manufactured from synthetic compounds
322
Organic Fertilizers
Any fertilizer that originates from an organic source, such as bone meal, compost, fish extracts, manure, or seaweed
323
Genetically Modified Foods
Foods produced from organisms both animal and plant) that have had changes introduced into their DNA
324
Genetic Engineering Techniques
Allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods
325
Rangelands
Native grasslands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals
326
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
Widely used method of growing food or clearing land in which wild or forested land is clear-cut and any remaining vegetation is burned
327
Soil Erosion
Movement of weathered rock or soil components from one place to another and is caused by flowing water, wind, and human activity
328
Soil Degradation
The decline in soil condition caused by its improper use or poor management, usually for agricultural, industrial, or urban purposes
329
Salinization
Water that is not absorbed into the soil evaporates, leaving behind dissolved salts in topsoil
330
Waterlogging
Saturation of soil with water, resulting in a rise in the water table
331
Tillage
An agricultural method in which the surface is plowed and broken up to expose the soil, which is then smoothed and planted
332
Irrigation
The application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals and has been a necessary component of agriculture for over 5,000 years
333
Ditch
Dug and seedlings are planted in rows
334
Drip
Water is delivered at the root zone of a plant through small tubes that drip water at a measured rate
335
Flood
Water is pumped or brought to the fields and is allowed to flow along the ground among the crops
336
Furrow (Channel)
Small parallel channels are dug along the field length in the direction of the predominant slope
337
Spray
Uses overhead sprinklers, sprays or guns to spray water onto crops
338
Pesticides
Used to control pests, but their use has drawbacks
339
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Ecologically based approach to control pests
340
Biological Pesticides
Living organisms used to control pests
341
Carbamates (Urethanes)
Affect the nervous system of pests, which results in the swelling of tissue in the pest
342
Fumigants
Used to sterilize soil and prevent pest infestation of stored grain
343
Inorganic Pesticides
Broad-based pesticides that include arsenic, copper, lead, and mercury
344
Organic Pesticides
Natural poisons derived from plants such as tobacco or chrysanthemum
345
Organophosphates
Etremely toxic but remain in the environment for only a brief time
346
Persistent organic pollutants (POPS)
Organic compounds can pass through and accumulate in living organisms' fatty tissues because they don't break down chemically or biologically
347
Pesticide Resistance
The decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest
348
Pest Species
Evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection
349
Pesticide Treadmill (Pest Traps)
Farmers are forced to use more and more toxic chemicals to control pesticide-resistant insects and weeds
350
Intercropping
A farming method that involves planting or growing more than one crop at the same time and on the same piece of land
351
Polyculture
The simultaneous cultivation or raising of several crops or types of animals
352
Genetic Resistance
An inherited change in the genetic makeup of the pests that confers a selective survival advantage
353
CAFO
An intensive animal feeding operation in which large numbers of animals are confined in feeding pens for over 45 days a year
354
Aquaculture
the commercial growing of aquatic organisms for food and involves stocking, feeding, protecting from predators, and harvesting.
355
Mining
Removing mineral resource from the ground
356
Contour Mining
Removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around a hillside.
357
Dredging
A method for mining below the water table and usually associated with gold mining
358
In situ
Small holes are drilled into the Earth and toxic chemical solvents are injected to extract the resource
359
Mountaintop Removal
Removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills"
360
Open pit
Extracting rock or minerals from the Earth by their removal from an open pit when deposits of commercially useful ore or rocks are found near the surface
361
Strip Mining
Exposes coal by removing the soil above each coal seam
362
Blast
Uses explosives to break up the seam, after which the material is loaded onto conveyors and transported to a processing center
363
Longwall
Uses a rotating drum with "teeth," which is pulled back and forth across a coal seam-the material then breaks loose and is transported to the surface
364
Room and Pillar
Approximately half of the coal is left in place as pillars to support the roof of the active mining area
365
Urbanization
The movement of people from rural areas to cities and the changes that accompany it
366
Urban Sprawl
Describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low-density and usually car-dependent communities
367
Job Sprawl
Low-density, geographically spread-out employment patterns, with most jobs in a metropolitan area outside the central business district and increasingly in the suburbs
368
Single-Use Development
Separates commercial, residential, institutional, and industrial areas
369
Smart growth
Promotes compact, transit-oriented, walkable, bicycle-friendly land use, neighborhood schools, and mixed-use development with a variety of housing options to slow urban sprawl and concentrate growth in compact, walkable "urban villages."
370
Mixed-Use Planning
Combining residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, and/or industrial uses in a specific location
371
Urban Development
The process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities and towns with the goal of making urban areas more attractive, functional, and sustainable
372
Urban Runoff
Surface runoff of rainwater created by urbanization
373
Ecological Footprint
A measure of human demand on Earths ecosystems and is a standardized measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the planets ecological capacity to regenerate
374
Sustainability
It refers to the capacity for the biosphere and human civilization to coexist through the balance of resources within their environment
375
Sustainable Agriculture
Emphasizes profitable, environmentally friendly, energy-efficient production and food systems that improve farmers' and the public's quality of life
376
Contour Plowing
Plowing along the contours of the land in order to minimize soil erosion
377
No-Till Agriculture
Soil is left undisturbed by tillage and the residue is left on the soil surface
378
Strip Cropping
Cultivation in which different crops are sown in alternate strips
379
Terracing
Make or form (sloping land) into a number of level flat areas resembling a series of steps
380
Windbreaks
Rows of trees that provide shelter or protection from the wind
381
First Green Revolution
The introduction of inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, new irrigation methods, and disease-resistant, high-yielding crop seeds.
382
Second Agricultural Revolution
In the mid-1980s, new engineering techniques and free-trade agreements involving food production property rights shaped agricultural policies and food production and distribution systems worldwide.
383
Third Agricultural Revolution
Scientific farming methods such as biotechnology, genetic engineering, and the use of pesticides are now beginning to focus on more sustainable methods.
384
First Agricultural Revolution
People went from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals, which allowed people to settle in areas and create cities. Settled communities permitted people to observe and experiment with plants to learn how they grow and develop.
385
Energy
The fundamental entity of nature that is transferred between parts of a system in the production of physical change within the system and is usually regarded as the capacity for doing work
386
Chemical Energy
Stored in bonds between atoms in a molecule
387
Electrical Energy
Results from the motion of electrons
388
Electromagnetic Energy
Energy that travels by waves
389
Mechanical Energy
Consists of potential and kinetic energies
390
Potential Energy
Stored energy in any object
391
Kinetic Energy
Energy in motion
392
Nuclear energy
Stored in the nuclei of atoms, and it is released by either splitting or joining atoms
393
Thermal Energy
The energy an object has because of the movement of its molecules
394
British thermal unit (Btu)
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1°F
395
Btu/hr
A ton in many air conditioning applications
396
Horsepower (HP)
Used in automobile industries
397
Kilowatt hour (kWh)
A unit of power; a measure of energy used at a give moment
398
First Law of Thermodynamics
The law of conservation of energy; energy can't be created nor destroyed
399
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The total system work is always less than the heat supplied into the system
400
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If a body A is in thermal equilibrium with another body B, and body A is also in thermal equilibrium with a body C, then this implies that the bodies B and C are also in equilibrium with each other
401
Renewable Energy
Energy that is collected from resources that are naturally replenished on a human time scale
402
Nonrenewable Energy Sources
Their use is not sustainable because their formation takes billions of years
403
Fossil Fuels
Fuels formed from past geological remains of living organisms
404
Peat
An accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter, mostly wetland vegetation like mosses, sedges, and shrubs, that forms in acidic and anaerobic conditions
405
Coal
Formed when dead plant matter that covered much of Earths tropical land surface at one time decays into peat and is then converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years
406
Lignite (brown coal)
Most harmful to human health and is used almost exclusively as the primary fuel for electric power generation around the world
407
Bituminous
Used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation
408
Anthracite
Used primarily for residential and commercial space heating
409
Clean Coal
Technology that attempts to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that arise from the burning of coal for electrical power
410
Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
Pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground
411
Natural gas
A fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants and gases are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years
412
Oil
A fossil fuel produced by the decomposition of deeply buried organic material (plants) under high temperatures and pressure for millions of years
413
Cogeneration
Also known as combined heat and power (CHP), is an efficient technology to generate electricity and heat simultaneously at local facilities; otherwise, the heat produced from electricity generation is wasted
414
Baghouse filters
Fabric filters that can be used to reduce particulates
415
Burning pulverized coal at lower temperatures
Coal is crushed into a very fine powder and injected into a firebox
416
Coal gasification
A process that turns coal and other carbon-based fuels into gas known as "syngas."
417
Cyclone Separator
A method of removing particulates through rotational (spinning) effects and gravity
418
Electrostatic Precipitator
A filtration device that removes fine particles, like dust and smoke, from a flowing gas using an electrostatic charge
419
Fluidized-Bed Combustion
A method of burning coal in which the amount of air required for combustion far exceeds that found in conventional burners
420
Scrubbers
Systems that inject chemical(s) into a dirty exhaust stream to "wash out" acidic gases
421
Sorbents
Activated charcoal, calcium compounds, or silicates that can convert gaseous pollutants in smokestacks into compounds that baghouse filters, electrostatic precipitation, or scrubbers can collect
422
Law of Supply
All other factors being equal, as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity of goods or services that suppliers offer will increase, and vice versa
423
Law of Demand
All other factors being equal, the quantity of the item purchased is inversely related to the price of the item
424
Methane Hydrates (Clathrates)
Recently discovered source of methane that form at low temperature and high pressure
425
Oil shale
An organic-rich, fine-grained sedimentary rock containing a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds (kerogen) from which liquid hydrocarbons (shale oil) can be produced
426
Synfuels
Any fuel produced from coal, natural gas, or biomass through chemical conversion
427
Tar sands
Contain bitumen-a semi-solid form of oil that does not flow
428
Combustion Reaction
Fossil fuel + oxygen gas —> carbon dioxide + water + energy
429
Hydraulic fracturing
Also known as "fracking," is an oil and gas well development process that typically involves injecting water, sand, and chemicals under high pressure into a bedrock formation via a well
430
Nuclear Meltdown
A severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating
431
U-235
Less than 1% of all-natural uranium on Earth
432
Critical Mass
The minimum amount of U-235 required for a chain reaction
433
U-238
The most common isotope of uranium and has a half-life of 4.5 billion years
434
Pu-239
Has a half-life of 24,000 years and is produced in breeder reactors from U-238
435
Nuclear Fuel
Usually enriched (concentrated) U-235
436
Control Rods
Move in and out of the core to absorb neutrons and slow down the reaction
437
Moderator
Reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby allowing a sustainable chain reaction
438
Coolant
Removes heat and produces steam to generate electricity
439
Biomass
Biological material derived from living, or recently living, organisms that can be burned in large incinerators to create steam that is used for generating electricity
440
Anaerobic Digestion
A collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material, in the absence of oxygen, to produce methane gas, which is then burned to produce energy
441
Biofuel
A liquid fuel produced from living organisms
442
Solar Energy
Consists of collecting and harnessing radiant energy from the sun to provide heat and/or electricity
443
Passive Solar Heating
Does not include any type of mechanical heating device and functions by incorporating building features that absorb heat and then release it slowly to maintain the temperature throughout the building
444
Residential Photovoltaic System
Consists of solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, and a battery storage and backup system
445
Dams
Built to trap water, which is then released and channeled through turbines that generate electricity
446
Wind Farms
Wind turbines clustered together
447
Phantom Load
Refers to the energy that an appliance or an electronic device consumes when it is not actually turned on
448
Air pollution
When harmful or excessive quantities of substances are introduced into Earths atmosphere
449
Parts per million (ppm)
The most common form of expressing air pollutants
450
Primary Pollutants
Emitted directly into the air
451
Secondary Pollutants
Result from primary air pollutants reacting together and forming new pollutants
452
Point Source Air Pollution
Occurs when the contaminant comes from an obvious source
453
Non-Point Source Air Pollution
Occurs when the contaminant comes from a source that is not easily identifiable or from several sources spread over a large, widespread area
454
Criteria Air Pollutants
A set of eight air pollutants that cause smog, acid rain, and other health hazards and are typically emitted from many sources in the industry, mining, transportation, power generation, and agriculture
455
Industrial Smog
Tends to be sulfur-based and is also called gray smog
456
Carbon Monoxide
A colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air and is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing compounds
457
Lead
Used in building construction, acid batteries for vehicles, bullets and shot fishing weights, solder, and shields for radiation
458
Nitrogen Oxide
A generic term for nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, which are produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air
459
Tropospheric Ozone
Does not have strong global effects, but instead is more influential in its effects on smaller, more localized areas
460
Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)
Secondary pollutants
461
Sulfuric Dioxide
A colorless gas with a penetrating, choking odor that readily dissolves in water to form an acidic solution
462
Suspended Particulate Matter (PMx)
Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in Earth’s atmosphere
463
Volcanic Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure (easily evaporate) at ordinary room temperature
464
Photochemical Smog
It is catalyzed by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, tends to be nitrogen-based, and is referred to as brown smog
465
Thermal Inversions
Occurs when air temperature rises with height instead of falling
466
Sick building syndrome (SBS)
A term used to describe a combination of ailments associated with an individuals place of work or residence
467
Asbestos
It is inexpensive, durable, and flexible mineral and naturally acts as an insulating and fireproofing agent
468
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
The most common type of fatal indoor air poisoning in many countries because it easily combines with hemoglobin to block the bloods oxygen-carrying capacity
469
Formaldehyde
An organic chemical that is prevalent in the indoor environment and is a carcinogen that is linked to lung cancer
470
Radon
An invisible radioactive gas that results from the radioactive decay of radium, which can be found in rock formations beneath buildings
471
Cigarette Smoke
Contains almost 5,000 chemical compounds, including 60 known carcinogens (cancer-causing chemicals), one of which is dioxin
472
Catalytic Converter
an exhaust emission control device that converts toxic chemicals in the exhaust of an internal combustion engine into less harmful substances
473
Catalyst
Stimulates a chemical reaction in which by-products of combustion are converted to less toxic substances by way of catalyzed chemical reactions
474
Acid Deposition
Occurs when atmospheric chemical processes transform sulfur and nitrogen compounds and other substances into wet or dry deposits on Earth
475
Dry Deposition
When acidic chemicals in the air may become dust or smoke and stick to the ground, buildings, homes, cars, and trees, which rainstorms wash away, increasing acidic runoff
476
Wet Deposition
When rain, sleet, snow, or fog that has become more acidic than normal
477
Acid Rain
When sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents and causes acidification of lakes and streams
478
Acid Shock
Caused by rapid melting of snow pack with dry acidic particles, raises lake and stream acid concentrations five to ten times higher than acidic rainfall
479
Urban Heat Islands
Occurs in metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings
480
Street Canyon
A place where the street is flanked by buildings on both sides, creating a canyon-like environment
481
Noise Pollution
An unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment
482
Sensory Hearing Loss
Caused by damage to the inner ear and is the most common form associated with noise pollution.
483
Heavy Metals
Metals that are non-biodegradable and can cause decreased reproductive rates and birth defects.
484
Geologic Repositories
An excavated, underground facility that is designed, constructed, and operated for safe and secure permanent disposal of HLW
485
Water Pollution
The contamination of water bodies
486
Point Source Water Pollution
Release pollutants from known locations, such as discharge pipes, that are regulated by federal and state agencies
487
Non-Point Source Water Pollution
A combination of pollutants from a large area rather than from specific identifiable sources
488
Thermal Pollution
The degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature
489
Cultural Eutrophication
The process whereby human activity increases the amount of nutrients entering surface waters
490
Nitrates
Found in fertilizers, which can remain on fields and accumulate, leach into groundwater, or end up in surface runoff and cause algal blooms in surface waters, resulting in decreased dissolved oxygen levels
491
Phosphates
A component of fertilizers; not water-soluble, and they adhere to soil particles
492
Great Pacific Garbage Patch
A large system of rotating ocean currents of marine litter in the central North Pacific Ocean and is characterized by high concentrations of floating plastics, chemical sludge, and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre
493
Great Patch
Formed as a result of marine pollution gathered by oceanic currents as the gyres rotational pattern drew in waste material from across the North Pacific Ocean
494
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Organic (carbon) compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical or biological processes or decomposition due to light
495
Water Quality
The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water; a measure of the condition of the water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose
496
Water Testing
A broad description of various procedures that are used to analyze water quality
497
Alkalinity
Measures the sum of the bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions in the water, which raise the pH
498
Ammonia
When found in natural water, is regarded as an indicator of pollution
499
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Gives an approximation of the level of biodegradable waste in water
500
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
If level is too low, it indicates possible water pollution and shows a potential for further pollution downstream because the ability of the stream to self-cleanse will be reduced
501
Coliforms
A form of bacteria that is found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals; their presence in lakes, streams, and rivers is a sign of untreated sewage in the water
502
Nitrite
Occurs in water as an intermediate product in the biological breakdown of organic nitrogen being produced either through the oxidation of ammonia or the reduction of nitrate
503
Total hardness
Measures the total concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water
504
Turbidity
A measure of how light is scattered in the water column due to solids that do not dissolve but are small enough to be suspended in the water
505
Absorption
When one substance enters completely into another
506
Adsorption
When one substance hangs onto the outside of another
507
Disinfection
Using chemicals and/or cleansing techniques that destroy or prevent the growth of organisms that are capable of infection
508
Filtration
Removes clays, natural organic matter, precipitants, and silts from the treatment process
509
Flocculation Sedimentation
A process that combines small particles into larger particles that then settle out of the water as sediment
510
Ion Exchange
Removes inorganic constituents and can be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess fluoride, nitrates, radium, and uranium
511
Gland
An organ that secretes particular chemical substances for use in the body or for discharge into the surroundings
512
Endocrine System
A network of glands that make the hormones that help cells communicate with each other and is responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in both humans and animals
513
Endocrine Disruptors
Chemicals that can interfere with endocrine or hormonal systems and can cause behavior, learning and developmental disorders, birth defects, cancerous tumors, and loss of fertility
514
Bisphenol A (BPA)
Used in plastic manufacturing and epoxy
515
Dioxins
By-product of herbicide production and paper bleaching, and released during burning wastes and wildfires
516
Phthalates
Used to make plastics more flexible
517
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Used to make electrical equipment, heat transfer fluids and lubricants
518
Wetland
A place where the land is covered by water, which can be freshwater, saltwater, or brackish water
519
Mangrove
A shrub or small tree that grows in slightly salty (brackish) water formed by seawater mixing with freshwater in estuaries
520
Bioaccumulation
The increase in the concentration of a pollutant within an organism
521
Biomagnification
The increasing concentration of a substance in the tissues of organisms at successively higher trophic levels within a food chain
522
Municipal solid waste (MSW)
More commonly known as trash or garbage-consists of everyday items that are used and then thrown away
523
Hazardous Waste
Can take hundreds of years to decompose.
524
Organic Waste
Decomposes within two weeks
525
Radioactive Waste
Can take hundreds of thousands of years to decompose
526
Recyclable Waste
Material that has been recovered or diverted from the non- hazardous solid waste stream for purpose of reuse, recycling or reclamation and a substantial
527
Soiled Wastes
Hospital wastes
528
Microorganisms
Are used to break down biodegradable material and sewage sludge in the absence of oxygen
529
Incineration
A waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances contained in waste materials and the conversion of the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat
530
Global Waste Trade
It is the international trade of waste between countries for further treatment, disposal, and/or recycling
531
Ocean Dumping
The deliberate disposal of municipal and/or hazardous wastes at sea
532
Sanitary Landfills
Method of waste disposal where the waste is buried either underground or in large piles, and where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe
533
Reducing
Lessening the number of hazardous wastes by substituting and using products that are more "Earth-friendly."
534
Freon®
Molecular structure contains chlorine, which seriously degrades the stratospheric ozone layer
535
Puron®
Substitutes fluorine for chlorine, and has less of an impact on the stratospheric ozone layer
536
Low-Level Radioactive Wastes
Contain low levels of radiation and remain dangerous for a relatively short time
537
High-Level Radioactive Wastes
Contain high levels of radiation and remain dangerous for a very long time
538
Reactive Wastes
Wastes that are unstable under normal conditions
539
Source-Specific Wastes
Wastes from specific industries
540
Teratogens
Substances found in the environment that can cause birth defects
541
Toxic Wastes
Wastes that are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed
542
Landfill Capping
A containment technology that forms a barrier between the contaminated media and the surface, protecting humans and the environment from its harmful effects and limiting its migration
543
Hazardous Waste Landfills
Excavated or engineered sites for the final disposal of non-liquid hazardous waste are selected and designed to minimize environmental release
544
Permanent Storage
Isolates hazardous waste from the environment by condensing or concentrating it
545
Surface Impoundments
Natural topographic depressions, man-made excavations, or diked areas that are used for temporary storage and/or for the treatment of liquid hazardous waste
546
Injection Wells
Stores fluid deep underground in geologically stable, porous rock formations, such as sandstone or limestone, or into or below the shallow soil layer
547
Waste Piles
Non-containerized piles of solid, non-liquid hazardous waste that are used for temporary storage or treatment
548
Reduction and Cleanup of Hazardous Wastes
Occur by producing less waste, converting the hazardous material to less hazardous or nonhazardous substances, and placing the toxic material into perpetual storage
549
Brownfield
Land that was previously used for industrial or commercial purposes, may have been contaminated with hazardous wastes, and is commonly found in large urban areas
550
Fertilizer Use
primary source of nitrous oxide emissions.
551
Zebra Mussels
They can attach to almost any hard surface—clogging water intake and discharge pipes, attaching themselves to boat hulls and docks, and even attaching to native mussels and crayfish.
552
Stratosphere
Contains approximately 97% of the ozone in the atmosphere, and most of it lies between 9 and 25 miles (15-40 km) above Earths surface
553
UVA
Closest to blue light in the visible spectrum and is the form of ultraviolet radiation that usually causes skin tanning
554
UVB
Causes blistering sunburns and is associated with skin cancer
555
UVC
Found only in the stratosphere and is largely responsible for the formation of ozone
556
Ozone Layer
A belt of naturally occurring ozone gas that sits between 9 and 19 miles (15-30 km) above Earth and serves as a shield from the harmful ultraviolet B radiation emitted by the sun
557
Ozone
A highly reactive molecule and is constantly being formed and broken down in the stratosphere
558
Chlorofluorocarbons
Nonflammable chemicals that contain atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine
559
Halocarbons (halons)
Organic chemical molecules that are composed of at least one carbon atom with one or more halogen atoms; the most common halogens are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
560
Commercial and Residential Buildings
On-site energy generation and burning fuels for heat in buildings or cooking in homes
561
Energy Supply
The burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions
562
Land Use and Forestry
Includes deforestation of old-growth forests (carbon sinks), land clearing for agriculture, strip-mining, fires, and the decay of peat soils
563
Transportation
Involves fossil fuels that are burned for road, rail, air, and marine transportation
564
Waste and Wastewater
Landfill and wastewater methane (CH4), and incineration as a method of waste management
565
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
It is an important heat-trapping (greenhouse) gas, and is released through human activities such as deforestation and burning fossil fuels, as well as natural processes such as respiration and volcanic eruptions
566
Fluorinated Gases
Industrial processes, refrigeration, and the use of a variety of consumer products all contribute to this gases, which include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
567
Black Carbon (soot)
A solid particle or aerosol, not a gas, but it also contributes to the warming of the atmosphere
568
Kyoto Protocol (2005)
A plan created by the United Nations to reduce the effects of climate change, which results in a reduction in the pH of ocean water over an extended period of time
569
Montreal Protocol (1987)
An international treaty designed to phase out the production of substances that are responsible for ozone depletion
570
Paris Agreement (2016)
Deals with greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation
571
Adaptation
The ability to survive in changing environmental conditions
572
Acclimatization
The process by which an individual organism adjusts to a gradual change in its environment allowing it to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions
573
Invasive Species
Animals and plants that are transported to any area where they do not naturally live
574
Endangered Species
A species considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild
575
A community of living (biotic) organisms interacting with the non-living (abiotic) components of their environment as a system through various nutrients and energy cycles.
Ecosystem
576
A living thing that can function on its own.
Organism
577
Organisms that resemble each other; are similar in genetic makeup, chemistry, and behavior; and are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Species
578
occurring between different species.
Interspecific
579
Organisms of the same species that interact with each other and occupy a specific area.
Population
580
Population of different species.
Community
581
A particular area within a habitat occupied by an organism, as well as the function of that organism within its ecological community.
Ecological Niche
582
non-living aspects of our surroundings that affect living organisms and ecosystems
Physical Environment
583
Unique adaptations, position and role of an organism within an ecosystem
Niche
584
any type of close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms of the same or different species
Symbiosis
585
The interaction between two species whereby one species suffers and the other species is not affected.
Amensalism
586
The interaction between two species whereby one organism benefits and the other species is not affected.
Commensalism
587
Interaction between organisms when they share limited resources in an ecosystem
Competition
588
Competition between members of the same species.
Intraspecific
589
Competition between members of different species.
Interspecific
590
Interaction between two species where one hunts and consumes the other for food and where most competition takes place
Predator–Prey Relationships
591
The interaction between two species whereby both species benefit.
Mutualism
592
The interaction between two species whereby one species is benefited, and the other species is harmed.
Parasitism
593
Organisms that adapt their diet based on the availability and ease of capture of their prey
Opportunistic Predators
594
organisms that are highly adept at hunting and consuming a specific prey species, or even just a specific life stage of that species.
Specialist predators
595
Organisms that obtain their nutrients from dead or decaying plants or animals through the absorption of soluble organic compounds.
Saprottrophism
596
the existence, abundance, and distribution of species depend on the tolerance level of each species to both physical and chemical factors.
Law of Tolerance
597
Any abiotic factor that limits or prevents the growth of a population.
Limiting Factor
598
Based on a feeding relationship between two species
Predator-prey cycles
599
When two species share the same resource but have evolved slightly different structures to utilize the same resource
Morphological Partitioning
600
When competing species use the same resource by occupying different areas or habitats within the range of occurrence of the resource
Spatial Partitioning
601
When two species eliminate direct competition by utilizing the same resource at different times
Temporal Partitioning
602
Major regional or global biotic communities characterized by dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climates
Biomes
603
A region characterized by extremely low precipitation
Deserts
604
characterized by extremely cold temperatures, short growing seasons, permafrost, and treeless plains
Arctic tundra
605
Plants that have fleshy leaves or stems that store water.
Succulents
606
Plants that secrete toxins into the soil to prevent interspecific competition and have sharp spines that create shade, reduce drying airflow, discourage herbivores, and reflect sunlight.
Cactus
607
Plants that depend on water for germination, have short life spans, and perform their entire life cycle from seed to flower to seed within a single growing season
Wildflowers
608
Species that are generally small (small surface area), often nocturnal, and spend most of their time in undergrown burrows when cold
Desert Animals
609
summer hibernation
Aestivation
610
Covers about one-third of Earth's land surface and accounts for 75% of gross primary productivity and plant biomass.
Forests
611
When tree crowns cover more than 20% of the ground’s surface, forming a thick layer that blocks sunlight from reaching the ground
Closed canopy
612
When tree crowns cover less than 20% of the ground surface, allowing more sunlight to reach the ground
Open canopy
613
Lush, evergreen forests found in warm, humid regions near the equator, characterized by tall trees, abundant rainfall, and incredible biodiversity.
Tropical Rainforests
614
The uppermost trees in a forest.
Overstory
615
Layer made up of young trees, short species of trees, shrubs, and soft-stemmed plants.
Understory
616
Vibrant ecosystems found in mid-latitude regions around the world, and characterized by distinct seasonal changes, with green foliage in spring and summer and display of colors and leaf loss in autumn.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
617
vast, evergreen ecosystems found in the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and characterized by tall, cone-bearing trees that remain green throughout the year, even during harsh winters. also known as southern taiga/boreal forests
Temperate Coniferous Forest
618
Largest terrestrial biome; found in northern Eurasia, North America, Scandinavia, and two-thirds of Siberia.
Taiga
619
Consists primarily of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves, such as pines, spruces, and larches.
Southern Taiga (Boreal Forest)
620
Environment that gets more barren as it approaches the tree line and the tundra biome.
Northern Taiga
621
Lands dominated by grasses rather than by large shrubs or trees.
Grasslands
622
Grasslands with scattered individual trees and cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America, and India.
Savannas
623
Environment where grasses are the dominant vegetation, while trees and large shrubs are absent.
Temperate Grasslands
624
Environment that has extremely low temperatures, low biotic diversity, and simple vegetation structure.
Tundra
625
A treeless biome found in the far northern regions of the Earth, primarily encircling the Arctic Ocean characterized by extremely cold temperatures, short growing seasons, permafrost (permanently frozen ground), and sparse vegetation.
Arctic tundra
626
Layer of permanently frozen subsoil.
Permafrost
627
A treeless biome found at high elevations above the treeline, typically on mountain ranges around the world
Alpine tundra
628
Continent with the coldest climate on Earth.
Antarctica
629
Formed from compressed snow that rarely melts.
Ice Sheet
630
Key food source in arctic ecosystems and serves as food for many predators.
Krill
631
The circular motion that occurs when warmer air or liquid rises, while the cooler air or liquid sinks.
Convection
632
Drive a conveyor belt of ocean water that moves constantly, unlike most surface currents, which are driven by winds.
Thermohaline currents
633
Part of the ocean that is closest to the shore.
Littoral Zone ( intertidal zone)
634
Also known as the sublittoral zone , this zone extends to the edge of the continental shelf.
Neretic Zone
635
The uppermost layer of water in a lake or ocean that is exposed to sunlight down to the depth where 1% of surface sunlight is available.
Photic Zone
636
The layer just above the depth where the rate of carbon dioxide uptake by plants is equal to the rate of carbon dioxide production by animals.
Photic Zone
637
Marine invertebrates that typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps.
Corals
638
Small, sac-like animals with a set of tentacles surrounding a central mouth opening and an exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate at the base.
Polyps
639
Single-celled dinoflagellates that live in a symbiotic relationship with most reef-building corals
Zooxanthellae
640
Most common reef type that grows near the coastline around islands and continents and are separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons.
Fringing reefs
641
Reefs that grow parallel to the coastline and are separated by deeper, wider lagoons. At their shallowest point, they can reach the water’s surface, forming a “barrier” to navigation.
Barrier reefs
642
Rings of coral that create protected lagoons and are usually located in the middle of the sea.
Atolls
643
Large natural bodies of standing freshwater are formed when precipitation, runoff, or groundwater seepage fills depressions in the Earth’s surface.
Lakes
644
Strctures constructed for hydroelectric power generation, recreational purposes, industrial and agricultural use, and/or domestic water supply.
Artificial lakes
645
The bottom of a lake where organisms can tolerate cool temperatures and low oxygen levels.
Benthic Zone
646
A well-lit, open surface water, farther from shore, extends to a depth penetrated by light, occupied by phytoplankton, zooplankton, and higher animals; produces food and oxygen that supports most of a lake’s consumers
Limnetic Zone
647
Ecological zone found in coastal environments where land and water meet
Littoral Zone
648
Deepest layer of freshwater ecosystems that lies below the photic zone (where sunlight penetrates) and is characterized by cold temperatures, darkness, and low oxygen levels.
Profundal Zone
649
Aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems with low levels of available nutrients characterized by limited plant growth, low organic matter, and high oxygen content due to the lack of excess organic decomposition.
Oligotrophic (Young Lake)
650
Aquatic ecosystems characterized by moderate levels of nutrients. These environments strike a balance between nutrient-poor and nutrient-rich conditions, supporting a diverse range of organisms
Mesotrophic (Middle-Aged Lake)
651
Aquatic ecosystems with an excessive abundance of nutrients leading to increased plant growth, often resulting in harmful algal blooms and various environmental challenges.
Eutrophic (Old Lake)
652
Formation of distinct layers within a body of water with varying densities due to differences in temperature and salinity
Stratification
653
deepest layer of thermally stratified lakes
Hypolimnion
654
exchange of surface and bottom water in a lake or pond twice a year.
Seasonal Turnover
655
The natural phenomenon in stratified lakes of mixing of warmer surface water with colder bottom water within the lake which leads to a more uniform temperature and distribution of nutrients.
Fall Turnover
656
The natural phenomenon in stratified lakes of mixing cooler surface water with warm bottom water within the lake which leads to a more uniform temperature and distribution of nutrients.
Spring Turnover
657
Areas that are covered with water at some point in the year and that support aquatic plants.
Wetlands
658
Zone that contains headwaters or headwater streams and often begins as springs or snowmelt of cold, clear water with little sediment and relatively few nutrients.
Source Zone
659
Zone that contains slower, warmer, wider, and lower-elevation moving streams, which eventually join to form tributaries.
Transition Zone
660
Flat area of land adjacent to a river, stream, or other body of water that is susceptible to flooding during periods of high water levels.
Floodplain Zone
661
Lands adjacent to creeks, lakes, rivers, and streams that support vegetation dependent upon free water in the soil.
Riparian Areas
662
fundamental element exchanged among the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere and is the basic building block of life and found in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbon
663
The ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, disrupting the creation of coral reefs and the viability of externally fertilized egg cells; Occurs when atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid,
Ocean Acidification
664
Element that takes up 78% of the atmosphere. Needed for photosynthesis
Nitrogen
665
A biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere
Nitrogen Cycle
666
When atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate ions (NO3–), which are biologically usable forms of nitrogen.
Nitrogen Fixation
667
Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrogen oxides by lightning and deposited in the soil by rain, where it is assimilated by plants and either eaten by animals or decomposed back to elemental nitrogen by bacteria
Natural Cycling of Nitrogen
668
A nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Rhizobium
669
When ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrite (NO2–) and nitrate (NO3–), which are the most useful forms of nitrogen to plants.
Nitrification
670
When plants absorb ammonia (NH3), ammonium ions (NH4+), and nitrate ions (NO3–) through their roots.
Assimilation
671
When decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms and wastes, which include nitrates, uric acid, proteins, and nucleic acids, to ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+)—biologically useful forms.
Ammonification
672
When anaerobic bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites (NO2–), nitrates (NO3–), nitrogen gas (N2), and nitrous oxide (N2O) to continue the cycle.
Denitrification
673
A greenhouse gas breaks down and destroys atmospheric ozone in the stratosphere.
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
674
Element essential for the production of nucleotides, ATP, fats in cell membranes, bones, teeth, and shells.
Phosphorus
675
the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth
Water cycle
676
When the rate of evaporation equals the rate of precipitation.
Dynamic Equilibrium
677
The conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid
Condensation
678
The process of turning from a liquid into vapor
Evaporation
679
The process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants
Evapotranspiration
680
The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil
Infiltration
681
Rain, snow, sleet, or hail that falls to the ground
Precipitation
682
Part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating
Runoff
683
A result of hydrogen bonding, helps tree roots take up water, allowing trees to grow as large as they do.
Capillary Action
684
Essential to life near the poles, results from the different ways water molecules arrange themselves at different temperatures.
Floating ice
685
A geologic formation that contains water in quantities sufficient to support a well or spring.
Aquifer
686
An aquifer below the land surface that is saturated with water.
Confined “artesian well” aquifer
687
The surface area above an aquifer that supplies water to the aquifer
Recharge zone
688
The zone immediately below the land surface where the open spaces in the soil contain both water and air, but are not totally saturated with water
Unsaturated zone
689
The level below which the ground is saturated with water
Water table
690
The sinking of land that results from groundwater extraction.
Land subsidence
691
Condition where the demand for water exceeds the available supply in a particular region or at a specific point in time
Water shortages
692
The movement of saltwater into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to contamination.
Saltwater intrusion
693
When plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use light energy to produce carbohydrates and other organic compounds
Photosynthesis
694
A pigment molecule found within chloroplasts
chlorophyll
695
specialized organelles in plant cells responsible for capturing energy from sunlight
Chloroplasts
696
The position an organism occupies in a food chain; the number of steps it takes from the chain's start.
Trophic Level
697
The natural interconnection of food chains.
Food web
698
Show ecosystem properties by placing primary producers at the base and decreasing energy as species move away from them.
Ecological pyramids
699
States that as energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it is wasted.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
700
A natural tendency of any isolated system to degenerate from an ordered state into a more disordered state.
Entropy
701
Organisms dependent on photosynthetic organisms.
Heterotrophs
702
the process by which organisms break down glucose and other organic molecules to release energy
Cellular Respiration
703
Compound oxidized by the cells to produce carbon dioxide, water, and chemical energy during cellular respiration
Glucose
704
It is the ultimate source of energy required for most biological processes.
Sunlight
705
States that energy is lost mostly as heat from one stage to the next.
10% Rule
706
The rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem (mass per unit surface area (or volume) per unit time)
Productivity
707
Productivity of autotrophs
Primary Productivity
708
Productivity of heterotrophs
Secondary Productivity
709
The generation of biomass by heterotrophic consumers in a system
Secondary production
710
Shows how much organic mass is within each trophic level.
Biomass pyramid
711
Show the proportion of energy passed from one trophic level to the next-level consumers in an ecosystem
Energy Pyramids
712
The rate at which plants capture and fix a given amount of chemical energy as biomass in a given length of time.
Gross primary production (GPP)
713
The remaining fixed energy is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy.
Net primary production (NPP)
714
The variability among species, between species, and of ecosystems
Biodiversity
715
The range of all genetic traits, both expressed and recessive, that make up the gene pool for a particular species
Genetic Diversity
716
Number of different species that inhabit a specific area
Species Diversity
717
The range of habitats that can be found in a specific area
Ecosystem Diversity
718
Large reduction in the size of a single population due to a catastrophic environmental event
Population Bottleneck
719
The number of individuals remaining after the bottleneck and how that compares to the smallest possible size at which a population can exist without facing extinction from a natural disaster
Minimum Viable Population Size
720
Species that live in different types of environments and have varied diets
Generalist Species
721
Species that require unique resources and often have a very limited diet
Specialist Species
722
The number of different species (diversity) represented in an ecological community or region
Species Richness
723
A suitable habitat for a specific ecosystem that is surrounded by a large area of unsuitable habitat
Island
724
Examining the factors that affect the richness and diversity of species living in these isolated natural communities
Island Biogeography
725
Proposes that the number of species found on an "island" is determined by immigration and extinction of isolated populations
Theory of Island Biogeography
726
Distance to the nearest island or mainland
Degree of Isolation
727
When a habitat is broken into pieces by development, industry, logging, roads, etc., and can cause an edge effect
Habitat Fragmentation
728
A community of organisms that interact with each other and their environment and that can change over time
Ecosystem
729
Occurring occasionally and at irregular intervals
Episodic Process
730
Occurring at repeated intervals
Periodic Process
731
Lacking a regular pattern
Random Process
732
The biological mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environments or to changes in their current environment
Adaptation
733
Learned or instinctive changes in an organism's behavior that help it survive and reproduce in its environment
Behavioral Adaptation
734
Physiological or biochemical changes within an organism that improve its ability to survive and reproduce in its environment
Physical Adaptation
735
Physical changes in an organism's anatomy or morphology that enhance its survival and reproduction in its environment.
Structural Adaptation
736
The gradual and orderly process of ecosystem development brought about by changes in community composition and the production of a climax community and describes the changes in an ecosystem through time and disturbance
Ecological succession
737
When one species modifies an environment to the extent that it meets the needs of another species
Facilitation
738
When one species modifies the environment to an extent that is not suitable for another species
Inhibition
739
When species are not affected by the presence of other species
Tolerance
740
Earlier successional plants, generalists
Pioneer Species
741
Mature rapidly; short-lived species; number of organisms within a species is high; low biodiversity; niche generalists
r-Strategists
742
Mature slowly; long-lived; number of organisms within a species is lower; greater biodiversity; niche specialists
K-Strategists
743
The process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time, which can be millions of years in the case of primary succession or decades in the case of secondary succession
Ecological succession
744
The evolution of a biological communitys ecological structure in which plants and animals first colonize a barren, lifeless habitat
Primary succession
745
A type of ecological succession in which plants and animals recolonize a habitat after a major disturbance
Secondary succession
746
An event or force that can result in mortality to organisms and changes in the spatial patterns in their ecosystem and plays a significant role in shaping the structure of individual populations within the ecosystem
Ecological disturbance
747
A directional, non-seasonal, cumulative change in the types of plant species that occupy a given area over time, involving colonization, establishment, and extinction; shows how an ecosystem changes after an ecological disturbance
Succession
748
A species whose presence contributes to a diversity of life and whose extinction would lead to the extinction of other forms of life
Keystone species
749
Organisms whose presence, absence, or abundance reflects a specific environmental condition and can indicate the health of an ecosystem
Indicator Species
750
long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system
Global Warming
751
Non-hereditary adaptations that develop in response to temporary changes in the environment
Short Term Adaptations
752
Adaptations that may involve DNA changing over long time periods in response to natural selection involving evolutionary processes.
Long-term Adaptations
753
Stage in succession when gross productivity is low due to the initial environmental conditions and low numbers of producers.
early stages of succession
754
Stage in succession near the climax community, gross productivity (GP) may be high, but increased respiration (R) balances it, so net productivity approaches zero and the gross production respiration (GP:R) ratio approaches 1:1.
later stages of succession
755
Shows age-distribution characteristics of species, reproductive strategies, and life history
Survivorship curves
756
Measured by how many organisms can mature and reproduce, with each survivorship curve representing a balance between natural resource limitations and interspecific and intraspecific competition
Reproductive success
757
Refers to the number of individuals that can be supported sustainably in a given area
Carrying capacity (K)
758
How individuals or species of animal become distributed in different spaces over certain periods
Population Dispersal Pattern
759
When some areas within a habitat are dense with organisms, while other areas contain few members
Clumped
760
Occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent
Random
761
When space is maximized between individuals to minimize competition
Uniform
762
The maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under optimum environmental conditions
Biotic potential
763
Any factor that inhibits an increase in the number of organisms in the population
Environmental Resistance
764
A curve that represents population growth occurs in a new environment when the population density of an organism increases rapidly in an exponential or logarithmic form, but then stops abruptly as environmental resistance or another factor suddenly impacts the population growth
J-Curve
765
A curve that represents when, in a new environment, the population density of an organism initially increases slowly but then stabilizes due to the finite amount of resources available
S-Curve
766
Any resource or environmental condition that limits the abundance, distribution, and/or growth of a population
Limiting Factor
767
Factors whose effects on the size or growth of the population vary with the density of the population
Density-dependent limiting factors
768
Factors that limit the size of a population, and their effects are not dependent on the number of individuals in the population
Density-independent factors
769
Explains the time periods involved in exponential population growth occurring at a constant rate
Rule of 70
770
Amount of time it takes for a population to double in size [70/% growth rate]
Doubling time
771
[(total births/total population)] × 100
Birth Rate (%)
772
[(b ÷ p) × 1,000]
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
773
[(total deaths/total population)]× 100
Death Rate (%)
774
[(d ÷ p) × 1,000]
Crude Death Rate (CDR)
775
number leaving a population
Emigration
776
[(CBR – CDR)]/10
Global Population Growth Rate (%)
777
number entering a population
Immigration
778
[(CBR + immigration) – (CDR + emigration)]/10
National Population Growth Rate (&)
779
[(new # - old #)/old #] × 100
Percent Rate of Change
780
Total population size/total area
Population Density
781
[(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)]/total population
Population Growth Rate (%)
782
Diagram determined by birth rate, generation time, death rate, and sex ratios
Age-structure diagrams
783
Diagram that indicates that the population has high birth rates and the majority of the population is in the reproductive age group
Pyramid-shaped age-structure diagram
784
Diagram that indicates that pre-reproductive and reproductive age groups are more nearly equal, with the post-reproductive group being smallest due to mortality
Bell shape age-structure diagram
785
Diagram that indicates that the post-reproductive group is largest and the pre-reproductive group is smallest, a result of the birth rates falling below the death rate, and is characteristic of declining populations
Urn-Shaped age-structure diagram
786
The average number of children that each woman will have during her lifetime
Total fertility rate (TFR)
787
Viewed undeveloped land as a hostile wilderness to be cleared and planted, then exploited for its resources as quickly as possible
Frontier Worldview
788
Beliefs that as the planets most important species, we are in charge of Earth
Planetary Management
789
Beliefs that nature exists for all Earths species and we are not in charge of Earth; resources are limited and should not be wasted
Earth Wisdom
790
It is the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country or region develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system
Demographic Transition
791
Even if all other factors are favorable, the one that is least favorable will dictate the growth, abundance, or distribution of the population of a species.
Liebig’s law of the minimum
792
Loop that stimulates change and is responsible for sudden or rapid changes within ecosystems.
Positive Feedback Loops
793
Loop that often provides stability. Limiting factors can cause a negative feedback loop because populations cannot exceed the ecosystem's carrying capacity.
Negative Feedback Loops
794
Denotes the point at which the upward growth curve begins to level out
Carrying Capacity
795
When growth rate depends on the number of organisms in the population.
Density-Dependent
796
States that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into a small number of plates that float on and travel independently over the mantle, with much of Earth’s seismic activity occurring at the boundaries of these plates.
Plate Tectonic Theory
797
Geologic process in which tectonic plates —large slabs of Earth's lithosphere —split apart from each other.
Seafloor Spreading Theory
798
Areas on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move toward each other, with one sliding underneath the other and moving down into the mantle.
Subduction Zones
799
Where two plates slide toward each other.
Convergent Boundaries
800
When two plates slide apart from each other.
Divergent Boundaries
801
A curved chain of volcanic islands rising from the deep seafloor and near a continent.
Island Arc
802
Where the descending plate dips downward.
undersea trench
803
Where plates slide past each other in opposite directions.
Transform boundaries
804
Thin layer on top of most of Earth’s land surface.
Soils
805
Leaves and partially decomposed organic debris.
Surface Litter
806
Organic matter, living organisms, and inorganic materials; it is very thick in grass lands.
Topsoil
807
Dissolved and suspended materials move downward.
Zone of leaching
808
Soil that tends to be yellowish due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humic compounds, and clay leached from A and E horizons.
Subsoil
809
Partially broken-down inorganic materials.
Weathered Parent Material
810
Measured by precipitation and temperature, which results in partial weathering of the parent material, which forms the substrate for soil.
Climate
811
The rock and minerals from which the soil derives.
Parent Material
812
The physical characteristics of the location
Topography
813
Movement of weathered rock and/or soil components from one place to another caused by flowing water, wind, and human activity.
Soil Erosion
814
Occur when masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope.
Landslides
815
A common type of fast-moving landslide that tends to flow in channels.
Mudslides
816
Rocks formed by cooling and classified by their silica content.
Igneous Rocks
817
Rocks that solidify deep underground, cool slowly, and have a large-grained texture.
Intrusive igneous rocks
818
Rocks that solidify on or near the surface, cool quickly, and have a fine-grained smooth texture.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
819
Rocks formed by intense heat and pressure, high quartz content.
Metamorphic Rocks
820
Rocks formed by the piling and cementing of various materials over time in low-lying areas.
Sedimentary
821
Gravel, Sand, Loam, Silt, Clay
Soil Composition
822
Dark organic material that forms in soil when plant and animal matter decays.
Humus
823
How well a soil is able to absorb oxygen, water, and nutrients.
Aeration
824
Measured by dry unit weight and depends on the water content and compaction effort.
Degree of Soil Compaction
825
The ability of soil to absorb and retain nutrients so they will be available to the roots of plants.
Nutrient-Holding Capacity
826
The measure of the capacity of the soil to allow water and oxygen to pass through it.
Permeability
827
The measure of how acidic or basic soil is.
pH
828
Describes the space between soil particles.
Pore Size
829
Controlled primarily by the soil texture and the soil organic matter content.
Water Holding Capacity
830
A reflection of the particle size distribution of soil.
Soil Texture
831
% Water-Holing Capacity = (V_w/V_t) x 100%
Water holding capacity formula
832
The community of organisms living all or part of their lives in the soil
Soil Food Web
833
2.5 billion years ago killed almost all life on Earth. It was a time period when the Earth’s atmosphere and the shallow ocean experienced a rise in oxygen.
Great Oxidation Event (GOE)
834
NItrogen, Oxygen, Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide
Atmosphere Composition
835
The lowest portion of Earth’s atmosphere, 0–6 miles (0–10 km) above Earth’s surface.
Troposphere
836
Part of Earth’s atmosphere that is located 6–30 miles (10–50 km) above Earth’s surface.
Stratosphere
837
Caused by the movement or transfer of heat energy, which results from the unequal heating of Earth’s surface by the sun.
Weather
838
The average weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.
Climate
839
The primary way energy is transferred from hotter to colder regions in Earth’s atmosphere and is the primary determinant of weather patterns.
Convection
840
The measure of how warm it feels when factoring in relative humidity.
Heat Index (HI)
841
A large body of air that has similar temperature and moisture content.
Air Mass
842
An expression of the ability of surfaces to reflect sunlight.
Albedo
843
The distance above sea level.
Altitude
844
The process in which carbon atoms continually travel from the atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle
845
The boundary when two different air masses meet
Front
846
The leading edge of an advancing mass of cold air and is associated with thunderhead clouds, high surface winds, and thunderstorms.
Cold Front
847
The boundary between an advancing warm air mass and the cooler one it is replacing.
Warm Front
848
A pair of air masses, neither of which is strong enough to replace the other, that tend to remain in essentially the same area for extended periods of time.
Stationary Front
849
the process through which heat is trapped near Earth's surface by substances known as 'greenhouse gases.'
Greenhouse Effect
850
The measurement of the distance of a location on Earth from the equator.
Latitude
851
The primary determinant of plant growth and distribution and is a major determinant of biome type.
Moisture Content of Air
852
When the land cools down faster than the sea, resulting in the air above the land becoming denser than the air over the sea.
Land Breeze
853
When the land warms up faster than the sea, causing the air above it to become less dense.
Sea Breeze
854
When there is higher pressure at the center than around them, so winds blow away.
High-Pressure Weather Systems
855
Prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics near Earth’s equator, within the troposphere or lower portion of Earth’s atmosphere.
Trade Winds
856
Determined by pressure differences between air masses.
Wind Speed
857
Direction from which wind originated.
Wind Direction
858
Wind coming from the east.
Easterly
859
Wind coming from the west.
Westerly
860
A phenomenon wherein earth’s rotation on its axis causes winds to not travel straight, which causes prevailing winds in the Northern Hemisphere to spiral clockwise out from high-pressure areas and spiral counterclockwise toward low-pressure areas.
Coriolis Effect
861
When air heated near the equator rises and spreads out north and south. After cooling in the upper atmosphere, the air sinks back to Earth’s surface within the subtropical climate zone.
Hadley Air Circulation
862
Develop between 30° and 60° north and south latitudes. The descending winds of the Hadley cells diverge as moist tropical air moves toward the poles in winds known as the westerlies.
Ferrel Air Circulation Cells
863
These cells originate as icy-cold, dry, dense air that descends from the troposphere to the ground.
Polar Cells
864
A low-pressure zone embedded in a large mass of very cold air that lies atop both poles.
Polar Vortex
865
Term used in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific to describe a tropical storm
Hurricanes
866
Term used in South Pacific and Indian Ocean to describe a tropical storm
Cyclones
867
Term used in Northwest Pacific to describe a tropical storm
Typhoons
868
An area of descending air and low pressure, in the center of the hurricane
Eye
869
A rise in sea level that occurs during tropical cyclones, typhoons, or hurricanes.
Storm Surge
870
Wirling masses of air with wind speeds close to 300 miles per hour (485 kph).
Tornadoes
871
Strong, often violent winds that change direction with the season.
Monsoons
872
Winds that blow from cold to warm regions because cold air takes up more space than warm air.
Monsoon winds
873
A land area that drains rainfall and snowmelt into a lake, ocean, or aquifer.
Watershed
874
The largest watershed in the United States, which drains more than one million square miles or land.
Mississippi River watershed
875
Reduces pesticides and fertilizers that wash off farm fields and into nearby waterbodies by using land, forest, and water resources in ways that don't harm plants and animals.
Watershed Management
876
The northernmost latitude reached by the overhead sun.
Tropic of Cancer
877
The southernmost latitude reached by the overhead sun.
Tropic of Capricorn
878
Natural barriers to the smooth movement of air currents across continents.
Mountain Ranges
879
The drier situation which is directly responsible for the plants that grow there, which in turn affects the animals that live there.
Rain Shadow Effect
880
When prevailing winds, produced through the Coriolis effect and moving clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, push warmer, nutrient-poor surface waters away from the coastline
Upwelling
881
Air pressure patterns reverse direction, causing trade winds to decrease in strength. This causes the normal flow of water away from western South America to decrease “pile up.”
El Niño
882
Trade winds that blow west across the tropical Pacific are stronger than normal. This then results in an increase in the upwelling off of South America. This then results in cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures off of South America.
La Niña
883
Wrote "The Tragedy of the Commons "in 1968.
Garrett Hardin
884
The essay parallels what is happening worldwide in regards to resource depletion and pollution.
The Tragedy of the Commons
885
I = P × A × T
IPAT Formula
886
Release several types of gas emissions- ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and particulate matter.
CAFOs
887
When all of the trees in an area are cut at the same time
Clear-Cutting
888
Refers to how the local environment changes along some type of boundary or edge
Edge Effect
889
Created when trees are harvested, particularly when they are clear-cut
Forest Edges
890
It provides the ground below with shade and maintain a cooler and moister environment below
Tree Canopies
891
The conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas, which are then used for grain and grass fields mining, petroleum extraction, fuel wood cutting, commercial logging, tree plantations, or urban development
Deforestation
892
It implies greater output with less input
Agricultural Productivity
893
A plant is considered overgrazed when it is re-grazed before the roots recover, which can reduce root growth by up to 90%
Overgrazing
894
Provides plants with the nutrients needed to grow healthy and strong
Fertilizers
895
A fertilizer mined from mineral deposits or manufactured from synthetic compounds
Inorganic Fertilizers
896
Any fertilizer that originates from an organic source, such as bone meal, compost, fish extracts, manure, or seaweed
Organic Fertilizers
897
Foods produced from organisms both animal and plant) that have had changes introduced into their DNA
Genetically Modified Foods
898
Allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods
Genetic Engineering Techniques
899
Native grasslands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals
Rangelands
900
Widely used method of growing food or clearing land in which wild or forested land is clear-cut and any remaining vegetation is burned
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
901
Movement of weathered rock or soil components from one place to another and is caused by flowing water, wind, and human activity
Soil Erosion
902
The decline in soil condition caused by its improper use or poor management, usually for agricultural, industrial, or urban purposes
Soil Degradation
903
Water that is not absorbed into the soil evaporates, leaving behind dissolved salts in topsoil
Salinization
904
Saturation of soil with water, resulting in a rise in the water table
Waterlogging
905
An agricultural method in which the surface is plowed and broken up to expose the soil, which is then smoothed and planted
Tillage
906
The application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals and has been a necessary component of agriculture for over 5,000 years
Irrigation
907
Dug and seedlings are planted in rows
Ditch
908
Water is delivered at the root zone of a plant through small tubes that drip water at a measured rate
Drip
909
Water is pumped or brought to the fields and is allowed to flow along the ground among the crops
Flood
910
Small parallel channels are dug along the field length in the direction of the predominant slope
Furrow (Channel)
911
Uses overhead sprinklers, sprays or guns to spray water onto crops
Spray
912
Used to control pests, but their use has drawbacks
Pesticides
913
Ecologically based approach to control pests
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
914
Living organisms used to control pests
Biological Pesticides
915
Affect the nervous system of pests, which results in the swelling of tissue in the pest
Carbamates (Urethanes)
916
Used to sterilize soil and prevent pest infestation of stored grain
Fumigants
917
Broad-based pesticides that include arsenic, copper, lead, and mercury
Inorganic Pesticides
918
Natural poisons derived from plants such as tobacco or chrysanthemum
Organic Pesticides
919
Etremely toxic but remain in the environment for only a brief time
Organophosphates
920
Organic compounds can pass through and accumulate in living organisms' fatty tissues because they don't break down chemically or biologically
Persistent organic pollutants (POPS)
921
The decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest
Pesticide Resistance
922
Evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection
Pest Species
923
Farmers are forced to use more and more toxic chemicals to control pesticide-resistant insects and weeds
Pesticide Treadmill (Pest Traps)
924
A farming method that involves planting or growing more than one crop at the same time and on the same piece of land
Intercropping
925
The simultaneous cultivation or raising of several crops or types of animals
Polyculture
926
An inherited change in the genetic makeup of the pests that confers a selective survival advantage
Genetic Resistance
927
An intensive animal feeding operation in which large numbers of animals are confined in feeding pens for over 45 days a year
CAFO
928
the commercial growing of aquatic organisms for food and involves stocking, feeding, protecting from predators, and harvesting.
Aquaculture
929
Removing mineral resource from the ground
Mining
930
Removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around a hillside.
Contour Mining
931
A method for mining below the water table and usually associated with gold mining
Dredging
932
Small holes are drilled into the Earth and toxic chemical solvents are injected to extract the resource
In situ
933
Removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills"
Mountaintop Removal
934
Extracting rock or minerals from the Earth by their removal from an open pit when deposits of commercially useful ore or rocks are found near the surface
Open pit
935
Exposes coal by removing the soil above each coal seam
Strip Mining
936
Uses explosives to break up the seam, after which the material is loaded onto conveyors and transported to a processing center
Blast
937
Uses a rotating drum with "teeth," which is pulled back and forth across a coal seam-the material then breaks loose and is transported to the surface
Longwall
938
Approximately half of the coal is left in place as pillars to support the roof of the active mining area
Room and Pillar
939
The movement of people from rural areas to cities and the changes that accompany it
Urbanization
940
Describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low-density and usually car-dependent communities
Urban Sprawl
941
Low-density, geographically spread-out employment patterns, with most jobs in a metropolitan area outside the central business district and increasingly in the suburbs
Job Sprawl
942
Separates commercial, residential, institutional, and industrial areas
Single-Use Development
943
Promotes compact, transit-oriented, walkable, bicycle-friendly land use, neighborhood schools, and mixed-use development with a variety of housing options to slow urban sprawl and concentrate growth in compact, walkable "urban villages."
Smart growth
944
Combining residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, and/or industrial uses in a specific location
Mixed-Use Planning
945
The process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities and towns with the goal of making urban areas more attractive, functional, and sustainable
Urban Development
946
Surface runoff of rainwater created by urbanization
Urban Runoff
947
A measure of human demand on Earths ecosystems and is a standardized measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the planets ecological capacity to regenerate
Ecological Footprint
948
It refers to the capacity for the biosphere and human civilization to coexist through the balance of resources within their environment
Sustainability
949
Emphasizes profitable, environmentally friendly, energy-efficient production and food systems that improve farmers' and the public's quality of life
Sustainable Agriculture
950
Plowing along the contours of the land in order to minimize soil erosion
Contour Plowing
951
Soil is left undisturbed by tillage and the residue is left on the soil surface
No-Till Agriculture
952
Cultivation in which different crops are sown in alternate strips
Strip Cropping
953
Make or form (sloping land) into a number of level flat areas resembling a series of steps
Terracing
954
Rows of trees that provide shelter or protection from the wind
Windbreaks
955
The introduction of inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, new irrigation methods, and disease-resistant, high-yielding crop seeds.
First Green Revolution
956
In the mid-1980s, new engineering techniques and free-trade agreements involving food production property rights shaped agricultural policies and food production and distribution systems worldwide.
Second Agricultural Revolution
957
Scientific farming methods such as biotechnology, genetic engineering, and the use of pesticides are now beginning to focus on more sustainable methods.
Third Agricultural Revolution
958
People went from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals, which allowed people to settle in areas and create cities. Settled communities permitted people to observe and experiment with plants to learn how they grow and develop.
First Agricultural Revolution
959
The fundamental entity of nature that is transferred between parts of a system in the production of physical change within the system and is usually regarded as the capacity for doing work
Energy
960
Stored in bonds between atoms in a molecule
Chemical Energy
961
Results from the motion of electrons
Electrical Energy
962
Energy that travels by waves
Electromagnetic Energy
963
Consists of potential and kinetic energies
Mechanical Energy
964
Stored energy in any object
Potential Energy
965
Energy in motion
Kinetic Energy
966
Stored in the nuclei of atoms, and it is released by either splitting or joining atoms
Nuclear energy
967
The energy an object has because of the movement of its molecules
Thermal Energy
968
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1°F
British thermal unit (Btu)
969
A ton in many air conditioning applications
Btu/hr
970
Used in automobile industries
Horsepower (HP)
971
A unit of power; a measure of energy used at a give moment
Kilowatt hour (kWh)
972
The law of conservation of energy; energy can't be created nor destroyed
First Law of Thermodynamics
973
The total system work is always less than the heat supplied into the system
Second Law of Thermodynamics
974
If a body A is in thermal equilibrium with another body B, and body A is also in thermal equilibrium with a body C, then this implies that the bodies B and C are also in equilibrium with each other
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
975
Energy that is collected from resources that are naturally replenished on a human time scale
Renewable Energy
976
Their use is not sustainable because their formation takes billions of years
Nonrenewable Energy Sources
977
Fuels formed from past geological remains of living organisms
Fossil Fuels
978
An accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter, mostly wetland vegetation like mosses, sedges, and shrubs, that forms in acidic and anaerobic conditions
Peat
979
Formed when dead plant matter that covered much of Earths tropical land surface at one time decays into peat and is then converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years
Coal
980
Most harmful to human health and is used almost exclusively as the primary fuel for electric power generation around the world
Lignite (brown coal)
981
Used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation
Bituminous
982
Used primarily for residential and commercial space heating
Anthracite
983
Technology that attempts to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that arise from the burning of coal for electrical power
Clean Coal
984
Pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground
Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
985
A fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants and gases are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years
Natural gas
986
A fossil fuel produced by the decomposition of deeply buried organic material (plants) under high temperatures and pressure for millions of years
Oil
987
Also known as combined heat and power (CHP), is an efficient technology to generate electricity and heat simultaneously at local facilities; otherwise, the heat produced from electricity generation is wasted
Cogeneration
988
Fabric filters that can be used to reduce particulates
Baghouse filters
989
Coal is crushed into a very fine powder and injected into a firebox
Burning pulverized coal at lower temperatures
990
A process that turns coal and other carbon-based fuels into gas known as "syngas."
Coal gasification
991
A method of removing particulates through rotational (spinning) effects and gravity
Cyclone Separator
992
A filtration device that removes fine particles, like dust and smoke, from a flowing gas using an electrostatic charge
Electrostatic Precipitator
993
A method of burning coal in which the amount of air required for combustion far exceeds that found in conventional burners
Fluidized-Bed Combustion
994
Systems that inject chemical(s) into a dirty exhaust stream to "wash out" acidic gases
Scrubbers
995
Activated charcoal, calcium compounds, or silicates that can convert gaseous pollutants in smokestacks into compounds that baghouse filters, electrostatic precipitation, or scrubbers can collect
Sorbents
996
All other factors being equal, as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity of goods or services that suppliers offer will increase, and vice versa
Law of Supply
997
All other factors being equal, the quantity of the item purchased is inversely related to the price of the item
Law of Demand
998
Recently discovered source of methane that form at low temperature and high pressure
Methane Hydrates (Clathrates)
999
An organic-rich, fine-grained sedimentary rock containing a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds (kerogen) from which liquid hydrocarbons (shale oil) can be produced
Oil shale
1000
Any fuel produced from coal, natural gas, or biomass through chemical conversion
Synfuels
1001
Contain bitumen-a semi-solid form of oil that does not flow
Tar sands
1002
Fossil fuel + oxygen gas —> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Combustion Reaction
1003
Also known as "fracking," is an oil and gas well development process that typically involves injecting water, sand, and chemicals under high pressure into a bedrock formation via a well
Hydraulic fracturing
1004
A severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating
Nuclear Meltdown
1005
Less than 1% of all-natural uranium on Earth
U-235
1006
The minimum amount of U-235 required for a chain reaction
Critical Mass
1007
The most common isotope of uranium and has a half-life of 4.5 billion years
U-238
1008
Has a half-life of 24,000 years and is produced in breeder reactors from U-238
Pu-239
1009
Usually enriched (concentrated) U-235
Nuclear Fuel
1010
Move in and out of the core to absorb neutrons and slow down the reaction
Control Rods
1011
Reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby allowing a sustainable chain reaction
Moderator
1012
Removes heat and produces steam to generate electricity
Coolant
1013
Biological material derived from living, or recently living, organisms that can be burned in large incinerators to create steam that is used for generating electricity
Biomass
1014
A collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material, in the absence of oxygen, to produce methane gas, which is then burned to produce energy
Anaerobic Digestion
1015
A liquid fuel produced from living organisms
Biofuel
1016
Consists of collecting and harnessing radiant energy from the sun to provide heat and/or electricity
Solar Energy
1017
Does not include any type of mechanical heating device and functions by incorporating building features that absorb heat and then release it slowly to maintain the temperature throughout the building
Passive Solar Heating
1018
Consists of solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, and a battery storage and backup system
Residential Photovoltaic System
1019
Built to trap water, which is then released and channeled through turbines that generate electricity
Dams
1020
Wind turbines clustered together
Wind Farms
1021
Refers to the energy that an appliance or an electronic device consumes when it is not actually turned on
Phantom Load
1022
When harmful or excessive quantities of substances are introduced into Earths atmosphere
Air pollution
1023
The most common form of expressing air pollutants
Parts per million (ppm)
1024
Emitted directly into the air
Primary Pollutants
1025
Result from primary air pollutants reacting together and forming new pollutants
Secondary Pollutants
1026
Occurs when the contaminant comes from an obvious source
Point Source Air Pollution
1027
Occurs when the contaminant comes from a source that is not easily identifiable or from several sources spread over a large, widespread area
Non-Point Source Air Pollution
1028
A set of eight air pollutants that cause smog, acid rain, and other health hazards and are typically emitted from many sources in the industry, mining, transportation, power generation, and agriculture
Criteria Air Pollutants
1029
Tends to be sulfur-based and is also called gray smog
Industrial Smog
1030
A colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air and is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing compounds
Carbon Monoxide
1031
Used in building construction, acid batteries for vehicles, bullets and shot fishing weights, solder, and shields for radiation
Lead
1032
A generic term for nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, which are produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air
Nitrogen Oxide
1033
Does not have strong global effects, but instead is more influential in its effects on smaller, more localized areas
Tropospheric Ozone
1034
Secondary pollutants
Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)
1035
A colorless gas with a penetrating, choking odor that readily dissolves in water to form an acidic solution
Sulfuric Dioxide
1036
Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in Earth’s atmosphere
Suspended Particulate Matter (PMx)
1037
Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure (easily evaporate) at ordinary room temperature
Volcanic Organic Compounds (VOCs)
1038
It is catalyzed by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, tends to be nitrogen-based, and is referred to as brown smog
Photochemical Smog
1039
Occurs when air temperature rises with height instead of falling
Thermal Inversions
1040
A term used to describe a combination of ailments associated with an individuals place of work or residence
Sick building syndrome (SBS)
1041
It is inexpensive, durable, and flexible mineral and naturally acts as an insulating and fireproofing agent
Asbestos
1042
The most common type of fatal indoor air poisoning in many countries because it easily combines with hemoglobin to block the bloods oxygen-carrying capacity
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
1043
An organic chemical that is prevalent in the indoor environment and is a carcinogen that is linked to lung cancer
Formaldehyde
1044
An invisible radioactive gas that results from the radioactive decay of radium, which can be found in rock formations beneath buildings
Radon
1045
Contains almost 5,000 chemical compounds, including 60 known carcinogens (cancer-causing chemicals), one of which is dioxin
Cigarette Smoke
1046
an exhaust emission control device that converts toxic chemicals in the exhaust of an internal combustion engine into less harmful substances
Catalytic Converter
1047
Stimulates a chemical reaction in which by-products of combustion are converted to less toxic substances by way of catalyzed chemical reactions
Catalyst
1048
Occurs when atmospheric chemical processes transform sulfur and nitrogen compounds and other substances into wet or dry deposits on Earth
Acid Deposition
1049
When acidic chemicals in the air may become dust or smoke and stick to the ground, buildings, homes, cars, and trees, which rainstorms wash away, increasing acidic runoff
Dry Deposition
1050
When rain, sleet, snow, or fog that has become more acidic than normal
Wet Deposition
1051
When sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents and causes acidification of lakes and streams
Acid Rain
1052
Caused by rapid melting of snow pack with dry acidic particles, raises lake and stream acid concentrations five to ten times higher than acidic rainfall
Acid Shock
1053
Occurs in metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings
Urban Heat Islands
1054
A place where the street is flanked by buildings on both sides, creating a canyon-like environment
Street Canyon
1055
An unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment
Noise Pollution
1056
Caused by damage to the inner ear and is the most common form associated with noise pollution.
Sensory Hearing Loss
1057
Metals that are non-biodegradable and can cause decreased reproductive rates and birth defects.
Heavy Metals
1058
An excavated, underground facility that is designed, constructed, and operated for safe and secure permanent disposal of HLW
Geologic Repositories
1059
The contamination of water bodies
Water Pollution
1060
Release pollutants from known locations, such as discharge pipes, that are regulated by federal and state agencies
Point Source Water Pollution
1061
A combination of pollutants from a large area rather than from specific identifiable sources
Non-Point Source Water Pollution
1062
The degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature
Thermal Pollution
1063
The process whereby human activity increases the amount of nutrients entering surface waters
Cultural Eutrophication
1064
Found in fertilizers, which can remain on fields and accumulate, leach into groundwater, or end up in surface runoff and cause algal blooms in surface waters, resulting in decreased dissolved oxygen levels
Nitrates
1065
A component of fertilizers; not water-soluble, and they adhere to soil particles
Phosphates
1066
A large system of rotating ocean currents of marine litter in the central North Pacific Ocean and is characterized by high concentrations of floating plastics, chemical sludge, and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre
Great Pacific Garbage Patch
1067
Formed as a result of marine pollution gathered by oceanic currents as the gyres rotational pattern drew in waste material from across the North Pacific Ocean
Great Patch
1068
Organic (carbon) compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical or biological processes or decomposition due to light
Persistent Organic Pollutants
1069
The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water; a measure of the condition of the water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose
Water Quality
1070
A broad description of various procedures that are used to analyze water quality
Water Testing
1071
Measures the sum of the bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions in the water, which raise the pH
Alkalinity
1072
When found in natural water, is regarded as an indicator of pollution
Ammonia
1073
Gives an approximation of the level of biodegradable waste in water
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
1074
If level is too low, it indicates possible water pollution and shows a potential for further pollution downstream because the ability of the stream to self-cleanse will be reduced
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
1075
A form of bacteria that is found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals; their presence in lakes, streams, and rivers is a sign of untreated sewage in the water
Coliforms
1076
Occurs in water as an intermediate product in the biological breakdown of organic nitrogen being produced either through the oxidation of ammonia or the reduction of nitrate
Nitrite
1077
Measures the total concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water
Total hardness
1078
A measure of how light is scattered in the water column due to solids that do not dissolve but are small enough to be suspended in the water
Turbidity
1079
When one substance enters completely into another
Absorption
1080
When one substance hangs onto the outside of another
Adsorption
1081
Using chemicals and/or cleansing techniques that destroy or prevent the growth of organisms that are capable of infection
Disinfection
1082
Removes clays, natural organic matter, precipitants, and silts from the treatment process
Filtration
1083
A process that combines small particles into larger particles that then settle out of the water as sediment
Flocculation Sedimentation
1084
Removes inorganic constituents and can be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess fluoride, nitrates, radium, and uranium
Ion Exchange
1085
An organ that secretes particular chemical substances for use in the body or for discharge into the surroundings
Gland
1086
A network of glands that make the hormones that help cells communicate with each other and is responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in both humans and animals
Endocrine System
1087
Chemicals that can interfere with endocrine or hormonal systems and can cause behavior, learning and developmental disorders, birth defects, cancerous tumors, and loss of fertility
Endocrine Disruptors
1088
Used in plastic manufacturing and epoxy
Bisphenol A (BPA)
1089
By-product of herbicide production and paper bleaching, and released during burning wastes and wildfires
Dioxins
1090
Used to make plastics more flexible
Phthalates
1091
Used to make electrical equipment, heat transfer fluids and lubricants
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
1092
A place where the land is covered by water, which can be freshwater, saltwater, or brackish water
Wetland
1093
A shrub or small tree that grows in slightly salty (brackish) water formed by seawater mixing with freshwater in estuaries
Mangrove
1094
The increase in the concentration of a pollutant within an organism
Bioaccumulation
1095
The increasing concentration of a substance in the tissues of organisms at successively higher trophic levels within a food chain
Biomagnification
1096
More commonly known as trash or garbage-consists of everyday items that are used and then thrown away
Municipal solid waste (MSW)
1097
Can take hundreds of years to decompose.
Hazardous Waste
1098
Decomposes within two weeks
Organic Waste
1099
Can take hundreds of thousands of years to decompose
Radioactive Waste
1100
Material that has been recovered or diverted from the non- hazardous solid waste stream for purpose of reuse, recycling or reclamation and a substantial
Recyclable Waste
1101
Hospital wastes
Soiled Wastes
1102
Are used to break down biodegradable material and sewage sludge in the absence of oxygen
Microorganisms
1103
A waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances contained in waste materials and the conversion of the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat
Incineration
1104
It is the international trade of waste between countries for further treatment, disposal, and/or recycling
Global Waste Trade
1105
The deliberate disposal of municipal and/or hazardous wastes at sea
Ocean Dumping
1106
Method of waste disposal where the waste is buried either underground or in large piles, and where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe
Sanitary Landfills
1107
Lessening the number of hazardous wastes by substituting and using products that are more "Earth-friendly."
Reducing
1108
Molecular structure contains chlorine, which seriously degrades the stratospheric ozone layer
Freon®
1109
Substitutes fluorine for chlorine, and has less of an impact on the stratospheric ozone layer
Puron®
1110
Contain low levels of radiation and remain dangerous for a relatively short time
Low-Level Radioactive Wastes
1111
Contain high levels of radiation and remain dangerous for a very long time
High-Level Radioactive Wastes
1112
Wastes that are unstable under normal conditions
Reactive Wastes
1113
Wastes from specific industries
Source-Specific Wastes
1114
Substances found in the environment that can cause birth defects
Teratogens
1115
Wastes that are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed
Toxic Wastes
1116
A containment technology that forms a barrier between the contaminated media and the surface, protecting humans and the environment from its harmful effects and limiting its migration
Landfill Capping
1117
Excavated or engineered sites for the final disposal of non-liquid hazardous waste are selected and designed to minimize environmental release
Hazardous Waste Landfills
1118
Isolates hazardous waste from the environment by condensing or concentrating it
Permanent Storage
1119
Natural topographic depressions, man-made excavations, or diked areas that are used for temporary storage and/or for the treatment of liquid hazardous waste
Surface Impoundments
1120
Stores fluid deep underground in geologically stable, porous rock formations, such as sandstone or limestone, or into or below the shallow soil layer
Injection Wells
1121
Non-containerized piles of solid, non-liquid hazardous waste that are used for temporary storage or treatment
Waste Piles
1122
Occur by producing less waste, converting the hazardous material to less hazardous or nonhazardous substances, and placing the toxic material into perpetual storage
Reduction and Cleanup of Hazardous Wastes
1123
Land that was previously used for industrial or commercial purposes, may have been contaminated with hazardous wastes, and is commonly found in large urban areas
Brownfield
1124
primary source of nitrous oxide emissions.
Fertilizer Use
1125
They can attach to almost any hard surface—clogging water intake and discharge pipes, attaching themselves to boat hulls and docks, and even attaching to native mussels and crayfish.
Zebra Mussels
1126
Contains approximately 97% of the ozone in the atmosphere, and most of it lies between 9 and 25 miles (15-40 km) above Earths surface
Stratosphere
1127
Closest to blue light in the visible spectrum and is the form of ultraviolet radiation that usually causes skin tanning
UVA
1128
Causes blistering sunburns and is associated with skin cancer
UVB
1129
Found only in the stratosphere and is largely responsible for the formation of ozone
UVC
1130
A belt of naturally occurring ozone gas that sits between 9 and 19 miles (15-30 km) above Earth and serves as a shield from the harmful ultraviolet B radiation emitted by the sun
Ozone Layer
1131
A highly reactive molecule and is constantly being formed and broken down in the stratosphere
Ozone
1132
Nonflammable chemicals that contain atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine
Chlorofluorocarbons
1133
Organic chemical molecules that are composed of at least one carbon atom with one or more halogen atoms; the most common halogens are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
Halocarbons (halons)
1134
On-site energy generation and burning fuels for heat in buildings or cooking in homes
Commercial and Residential Buildings
1135
The burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions
Energy Supply
1136
Includes deforestation of old-growth forests (carbon sinks), land clearing for agriculture, strip-mining, fires, and the decay of peat soils
Land Use and Forestry
1137
Involves fossil fuels that are burned for road, rail, air, and marine transportation
Transportation
1138
Landfill and wastewater methane (CH4), and incineration as a method of waste management
Waste and Wastewater
1139
It is an important heat-trapping (greenhouse) gas, and is released through human activities such as deforestation and burning fossil fuels, as well as natural processes such as respiration and volcanic eruptions
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
1140
Industrial processes, refrigeration, and the use of a variety of consumer products all contribute to this gases, which include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
Fluorinated Gases
1141
A solid particle or aerosol, not a gas, but it also contributes to the warming of the atmosphere
Black Carbon (soot)
1142
A plan created by the United Nations to reduce the effects of climate change, which results in a reduction in the pH of ocean water over an extended period of time
Kyoto Protocol (2005)
1143
An international treaty designed to phase out the production of substances that are responsible for ozone depletion
Montreal Protocol (1987)
1144
Deals with greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation
Paris Agreement (2016)
1145
The ability to survive in changing environmental conditions
Adaptation
1146
The process by which an individual organism adjusts to a gradual change in its environment allowing it to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions
Acclimatization
1147
Animals and plants that are transported to any area where they do not naturally live
Invasive Species
1148
A species considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild
Endangered Species
