Unit 1

Question 1

Wanting

Answer 1

A state inside of us that desires change. A psychological driving force that energizes, guides, and sustains behavior.

Question 2

What does motivation do to behavior?

Answer 2

1) It energizes behavior, giving it strength. (Psychological energy to enact a certain behavior).
2) It guides behavior, giving it direction. It determines where we are channeling the energy we have.
3) Sustains behavior over time, giving it endurance.

Question 3

What do we consider to be direct causes of motivation?

Answer 3

Internal sources, like physical and psychological needs, cognitions (like goals), and emotions (like interests).

Question 4

What do we consider indirect sources of motivation?

Answer 4

Includes external sources, like social and cultural contexts and environmental conditions. These factors can affect each of the internal causes of motivation, but they are not direct causes of motivation themselves.

Question 5

What are the grand theories of motivation?

Answer 5

1) Instinct Theories
2) Drive Theories
3) Arousal Theories
4) Incentive Theories.

Question 6

What is the main theme behind the grand drive theory?

Answer 6

This asserts that physiological deficits create psychological drives which motivate us to take action (and that’s where all motivation stems from).

Question 7

What did Freud say in relation to the grand drive theory?

Answer 7

Tried to argue that it was all about anxiety. He asserted that something happens in our body (i.e., we get hungry), and then we experience that as psychological discomfort. Any time our body dips below a level of a resource that we need, then we get anxious. Once we’re anxious, we will do what we need to do to resolve that anxiety and deficit.

Question 8

What did Hull say in relation to the grand drive theory?

Answer 8

He argued that it was more about reinforcement, learning, and habits. He claimed that something happened in our body, and we are going to do whatever feels good to help us get back to our natural state. Whatever makes us feel better after we respond to our deficit is going to be our reinforced pattern of behavior and that is going to become our habit.

Question 9

What were the problems found with the grand drive theory of motivation?

Answer 9

1) Some motives do not have corresponding physiological needs.
2) External sources can motivate behavior too!

Note that not everything is motivated from bad emotions like this theory would suggest either.

Question 10

What does the grand incentives theory assert?

Answer 10

Asserts that all motivation comes from external incentives or consequences. Every time we are motivated to do something, it is because we want something out of it or we are scared we are going to be punished if we do not do it.

Question 11

What was the main problem with the grand incentive theory of motivation?

Answer 11

It’s simply not true! Incentives and consequences affect people differently, which tells us that external factors are not entirely the cause of motivation either.

Question 12

What was the goal of the mini theories of motivation?

Answer 12

The goal was to explain smaller bits of motivation at a time. Sometimes it looks like breaking motivation down into different subjects, sometimes it means breaking it down into what causes, what sustains, etc.

Question 13

What do the mini-theories have in common?

Answer 13

1) The person is an active, rather than passive, agent.
2) Focus is on the subjective experience of the person, and the interaction between a person and their environment.
3) Motivation scientists (finally) come together to seek answers to social-relevant questions.

Question 14

How did motivation scientists overcome the cognitive revolution?

Answer 14

They brought cognition into motivation science. They use internal mental processes, such as goals, expectations, and beliefs, as explanations for motivation.

Question 15

What are the five themes of motivation science?

Answer 15

1) Motivation is adaptive
2) We are not always aware of our motivation(s)
3) Motivation varies
4) There are types of motivations
5) Motivation needs supportive conditions to flourish.

Question 16

What do we mean when we say that motivation is adaptive?

Answer 16

We mean that motivation is beneficial for our survival, functioning, and well-being. It also serves as a form of corrective action when things go wrong. Overall, when motivation is depleted, our well-being suffers; when motivation is abundant, our well-being flourishes.

Question 17

What does it mean when we say that we are not always aware of our motivation(s)?

Answer 17

Pretty much as it sounds. People who really believe in this theme of motivation say that we might literally have no conscious awareness of our ability to access our motivation.

Question 18

What do we mean when we say that motivation varies?

Answer 18

We mean that it varies over time and across individuals. Furthermore, as we have many motivations at any given time, the strongest motivation typically wins out.

Question 19

What do we mean when we say that there are types of motivations?

Answer 19

Sometimes, it doesn’t matter “how much” motivation we have, but instead what type of motivation we have.

Question 20

What do we mean when we say that motivation needs supportive conditions to flourish?

Answer 20

We need to take into account the influence that our conditions and our environment on how motivated we are. Sometimes just trying to change our mindset is not going to help us, for example.

Question 21

Operational Definition

Answer 21

A concrete definition of an abstract concept (or construct).

Question 22

What are the five ways that we can measure motivation?

Answer 22

1) Behavioral Measures
2) Physiological Measures
3) Brain Activity Measures
4) Self-Report Measures
5) Life Outcomes as Measures

Question 23

What are examples of behavioral measures?

Answer 23

Can be something such as how long you work on an assignment. You are observing your persistence at a task or any other behavior indicator regarding the energy you are putting into something.

Question 24

What are examples of psychological behavioral measures?

Answer 24

Measuring motivation by looking for physiological signatures of motivational states. For example, changes in heart rate or hormone fluctuations.

Question 25

Psychophysiology

Answer 25

Process by which psychological states produce downstream changes in physiology.

Question 26

What are examples of brain activity behavioral measures?

Answer 26

Measuring motivation by looking at whether brain activity is consistent with underlying motivational states. For example, you could use medical machines to monitor the electrical activity in the brain. (PET?)

Question 27

What are examples of self-report behavioral measures?

Answer 27

Measuring motivation by simply asking people to report on their motivational states. Often, you have people take a survey and rate motivation on a scale, etc.

Question 28

What are examples of using life outcomes as measures of motivation?

Answer 28

You are assuming the presence of motivation by looking at life outcomes that are affected by motivation: 1) Performance and achievement. 2) Learning and skill development 3) Well-being and adjustment.

Question 29

Discuss the pros and cons of behavioral measures:

Answer 29

This measure is useful when you are tracking more straight-forward things. "Do homework" versus "Get healthier". You also need to be able to distinguish between what is put into a particular task/goal and what the outcome is. For example, you can still be motivated to do well at something, but perform poorly.

Question 30

Discuss the pros and cons of physiological measures and brain activity measures:

Answer 30

It can be very difficult to run these experiments and very specific technology is needed in order to actually get the measures. A lot of the data may also be correlational. You need to make sure whatever you are measuring actually measures what you are intending.

Question 31

Discuss the pros and cons of self-report measures:

Answer 31

Depending on how you, as a person, and how self-aware you are, you can't have a completely accurate self-report. Also, depending on who you are giving the report to will affect how you answer (honesty, etc).

Question 32

Discuss the pros and cons of life outcomes measures:

Answer 32

Obviously to do something like graduate college you need to have motivation, but this measure doesn't tell you anything about the amount or degree of motivation. There is no complexity involved.

Question 33

According to the physiological drive theory, what is motivation?

Answer 33

Motivation in this theory is defined as a psychological drive state that arises from physiological needs. Note that it is not the biological deficit itself that is causing the motivation. It is the psychological drive/state that the biological deficit causes that then leads to motivation.

Question 34

Homeostasis

Answer 34

The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.

Question 35

Why does homeostasis matter in relation to the physiological drive theory?

Answer 35

When we experience a biological imbalance, a corresponding psychological drive state emerges. Usually this is a feeling of discomfort- the want that results to resolve the discomfort is the state of motivation.

Question 36

Need

Answer 36

Condition within a person that is necessary for survival and well-being. Remember that this is a direct source of motivation- internal.

Question 37

Physiological Need

Answer 37

Biological condition within a person that is necessary for survival and well-being. As a need deficit increases, the need increasingly captures our attention.

Question 38

Psychological Drive State

Answer 38

Psychological discomfort stemming from underlying and persistent deficit in a physiological need.

Question 39

Negative Feedback

Answer 39

Homeostasis' physiological "stop" system. Lets our body know when we have reached a point of fullness, or satiety, for example.

Question 40

What are the three themes of drive theory's approach to motivation?

Answer 40

1) Increasing Deficit= Increasing Drive State 2) There are Multiple Inputs and Outputs in the Drive System 3) Biology is not the Only Thing Happening Here

Question 41

What does it mean when we say that an increasing deficit= an increasing drive state?

Answer 41

As a physiological need becomes increasingly deficient, it captures more of our attention. Leads to a stronger motivational force and a stronger determinant of our behavior.

Question 42

What is the problem with the theme that an increasing deficit means an increased drive state?

Answer 42

Doesn't take into consideration will-power/self-control or addictions. Sometimes we can even get to the action without the previous driving forces. There are also external influences that can lead to behaviors, not necessarily because of a biological deficit, but because of social factors, etc.

Question 43

What does it mean when we say that there are multiple inputs and outputs in the drive system?

Answer 43

There are multiple ways that we can become need-deficient, and there are multiple ways in which we can satisfy these needs.

Question 44

What does it mean when we say that biology is not the only thing happening?

Answer 44

Even for motivational processes that seem simple, there are not really short-term and long-term biological considerations, but also psychological, environmental, and socio-cultural considerations that need to be taken into account.

Question 45

What are some examples of complicating factors when it comes to the physiological drive theory and hunger?

Answer 45

Hunger only loosely follows a depletion-repletion pattern. There are short-term and long-term biological considerations as well as psychological, environmental, and social/cultural considerations.

Question 46

Neuroscience

Answer 46

The scientific study of the nervous system.

Question 47

What do motivational neuroscientists study?

Answer 47

1) How motivationally-related internal and external events activate brain structures. 2) How activated brain structures affect motivation and motivated behavior.

Question 48

What determines whether we are motivated to approach or avoid a stimulus?

Answer 48

1) The nature of the stimulus; is it good or bad? 2) Our nervous system activation; are we stress or relaxed.

Question 49

Spinal Reflexs

Answer 49

Represent basic patterns of response to the environment. Includes: 1) Flexor Reflexes 2) Extensor Reflexes

Question 50

Flexor Reflexes

Answer 50

When we withdraw away from dangerous stimuli. I.e., think about how you would flex your foot away from the ground if something dangerous was there.

Question 51

Extensor Reflexes

Answer 51

Enact approach toward appealing stimuli.

Question 52

Subcortical Region

Answer 52

"Basic". Represents motivation that is impulsive. Can think of it as representing basic types of processes that we refer to as "bottom-up".

Question 53

Cortical Region

Answer 53

"Classy". We are not just reacting, but we are proactively trying to regulate our emotion towards some sort of plan we may have. It also helps regulate the reflexes from the subcortical region. This is out "top-down".

Question 54

Cortisol

Answer 54

Stress Hormone. Is higher when you are more stressed.

Question 55

Oxytocin

Answer 55

Bonding hormone.

Question 56

Testosterone

Answer 56

Competitive Hormone

Question 57

Hypothalamus

Answer 57

Is the autonomic nervous system's head ganglion/main starting point. Helps regulate internal biological functions. Communicates with the pituitary gland. Relevant to the motivations that help us survive.

Question 58

Amygdala

Answer 58

Emotion regulation.

Question 59

Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 59

Underlies many important motivations, including affect, goals, and personal strivings. This is also where there is some evidence to suggest that, depending on what cortex (left or right) is more dominant, there could be differences between people regarding basic motivational tendencies.

Question 60

Behavioral Inhibition System

Answer 60

People who score high on these items show greater right-side asymmetry, and because of this they show/tend to be overly sensitive to punishment, anxiety, negative emotion, avoidance motivation, and avoidance-oriented behaviors.

Question 61

Behavioral Activation System

Answer 61

People who score high on these items show greater left-side asymmetry, and because of this they show a greater personality or trait-like sensitivity to reward, eagerness, positive emotion, approach motivation, and approach-oriented behaviors.

Question 62

Negativity Bias

Answer 62

Neurobehavioral disposition to avoid novel and/or ambiguous stimuli at shorter distances from the stimulus.

Question 63

Positivity Offset

Answer 63

Neurobehavioral disposition to approach novel and /or ambiguous stimuli at low levels of nervous system activation and longer distances from the stimulus.

Question 64

Cognition

Answer 64

Internal mental processes, such as attention, beleifs, goals.

Question 65

What do we mean when we say that "cognition operates in the service of motivation?"

Answer 65

We are saying that we have certain feelings, thoughts, and beliefs, that are there that make us motivated to do whatever those thoughts/goals are related to.

Question 66

Goal

Answer 66

Future-focused cognitive representation of a desired end-state. Can be a tangible outcome, an internal state, or an ideal future self. It is only present when there is a conscious commitment to it.

Question 67

Where do goals come from?

Answer 67

1) State of Mind/Internal Emotional State 2) Internal- Thought 3) Practice, Growth-Based (Avoidance) 4) Can also be socially learned - If you have a role model that you look up to, etc. 5) External Pressures 6) Culture

Question 68

What is the point of goals?

Answer 68

Just having a goal is associated with better motivation and performance. Goals energize, direct, and sustain behavior.

Question 69

How can we increase our chances of achieving our goals?

Answer 69

1) Setting the right goals. 2) Turning our focus inward. 3) Structuring our environments for success.

Question 70

What are the three qualities of "good" goals?

Answer 70

1) Good goals are difficult 2) Good goals are specific 3) Good goals are congruent with you, your needs, and your values.

Question 71

Goal Specificity

Answer 71

Extent to which a goal is clear in informing a person exactly what to do to achieve that goal.

Question 72

Why is it good to have specific goals?

Answer 72

Specific goals direct behavior in ways that will actually help with achieving those goals. It directs motivational energy somewhere.

Question 73

Goal Congruity

Answer 73

Extent to which a goal is reflective of a person's interest, needs, values, and preferences.

Question 74

Goal Difficulty

Answer 74

The extent to which a goal is difficult to accomplish.

Question 75

Why is it good to have difficult goals?

Answer 75

Difficult goals energize behavior, resulting in additional exertion of effort.

Question 76

What are some barriers to effective goal-striving?

Answer 76

1) Self-Control 2) Process Focus versus Outcome Focus

Question 77

Self-Control

Answer 77

Being able to push down temptations (ignore short-term gratification in favor of long-term goal achievement) can be difficult.

Question 78

Outcome Focus

Answer 78

What it is going to feel like when we actually achieve that thing.

Question 79

Process Focus

Answer 79

Instead of focusing on the outcome, think about how it is nice to be doing the thing you're doing. Generally, this is better than having an outcome focus.

Question 80

Self-Regulation

Answer 80

The process of exerting and managing ourselves to accomplish our goals; in other words, the way we adjust our progress toward our [long-term] goals. - Refers to a number of processes that allow us to make self-corrective adjustments in service of goal achievement.

Question 81

What are the components of the self-regulation cycle?

Answer 81

Reference Value= Goal Inputs= The information that is going to help us understand how we are progressing towards our goal. Comparison= Us noticing the goal in reference to the information we are getting and seeing if there is a discrepancy or not. Output= What do we do about the resulting comparison?

Question 82

What does the theory of self-regulation assert about discrepancies?

Answer 82

States that the discrepancy between our current state and our ideal state motivates our behavior.

Question 83

When there is a discrepancy, what can we do?

Answer 83

1) Can try to change our behavior, what we are going to do. 2) We can always change the goal. 3) We can withdraw from the goal as a whole.

Question 84

Discrepancy-Reducing Loops

Answer 84

= Negative Feedback Loops. - Is a self-regulatory process in which we attempt to reduce the discrepancy between ourselves and a desired end-state. - Size of discrepancy= size of motivation.

Question 85

Discrepancy-Enlarging Loop

Answer 85

= Positive Feedback Loops - Self-regulatory process in which we attempt to increase the discrepancy between ourselves and an undesirable end-state.

Question 86

What are the two self-regulatory feedback loops?

Answer 86

1) The behavior loop 2) The affect (emotion) loop

Question 87

The Behavior Loop

Answer 87

Tracks our progress toward our goals and modifies behavior accordingly.

Question 88

The Affect (Emotion) Loop

Answer 88

Tracks the rate at which we are progressing toward our goals, and modifies our emotional states accordingly.

Question 89

What happens if we are progressing toward our goals faster than we expected in the affect loop?

Answer 89

We feel positive emotions. It means that we are doing better than we feel we should be doing at the time!

Question 90

What happens if we are progressing toward our goals more slowly than we expected in the affect loop?

Answer 90

We feel negative emotions. It means we're doing worse than we feel we should be doing at the time.

Question 91

What emotions do we feel if we are going faster than expected in a discrepancy-reducing feedback loop?

Answer 91

Elation, excitement, etc.

Question 92

What emotions do we feel if we are going slower than expected in a discrepancy-reducing feedback loop?

Answer 92

Frustration, anger, etc.

Question 93

What emotions do we feel if we are going faster than expected in a discrepancy enlarging feedback loop?

Answer 93

Relief, calmness, etc.

Question 94

What emotions do we feel if we are going slower than expected in a discrepancy-enlarging feedback loop?

Answer 94

Guilt, anxiety, etc.

Question 95

Coasting

Answer 95

When a person exceeds the rate at which they expect to achieve a goal, because of the positive emotions that result, they temporarily halt goal-related pursuits.

Question 96

What are the pros and cons of coasting?

Answer 96

Pros: - Means that we are doing well so far! - Can give us the opportunity to work toward other goals if we are able to slow down on our current one. Cons: - Could get hard to motivate ourselves to keep going toward the goal.

Question 97

What could we try to do in regards to coasting?

Answer 97

We could try to add more elements to a goal to try and prevent it. Or, we could alter the goal in general.

Question 98

What are positive fantasies?

Answer 98

When we fantasize about us already succeeding at a goal.

Question 99

Why are positive fantasies bad for motivation and performance?

Answer 99

It is not good for us because it makes us feel like we already accomplished something and then we can lose our motivation in real life.

Question 100

What does WOOP stand for?

Answer 100

Wish, Outcome, Obstacle, Plan.

Question 101

Wish

Answer 101

Identify your wish (goal).

Question 102

Outcome

Answer 102

Identify the best outcome if your goal is attained (positive fantasy time!)

Question 103

Obstacle

Answer 103

Identify your own internal (and any external) obstacles.

Question 104

Plan

Answer 104

Identify an if-then plan for what you will do if the obstacle arises.

Question 105

Goal Shielding

Answer 105

The process of "pushing down" attractive alternative goals in the pursuit of our primary, most important goals.

Question 106

Implementation Intentions

Answer 106

If-then statements that specify the goal-striving process in advance. (Basically the P part of WOOP). - We are specifying a set of conditions and then a series of behaviors to make sure that we are reminding ourselves what we will do to make sure we are protecting our goal.

Question 107

Why do implementation intentions work?

Answer 107

Good implementation intentions are tailored to a specific situation, and specify a clear course of action; because of this, they turn goal striving into a habit.

Question 108

Multiple Goals Approach

Answer 108

Our goals exist in a hierarchy: we have higher-order, "superordinate" goals as well as lower-order, short-term goals.

Question 109

What do we mean when we say that our goals differ in their equifinality?

Answer 109

When we say this, it means that the number of way sin which a goal can be pursued or achieved varies.

Question 110

Goal Facilitation

Answer 110

Occurs when the pursuit of one goal simultaneously increases the likelihood of success in reaching another goal.

Question 111

Goal Conflict

Answer 111

Occurs when the pursuit of one goal impairs the likelihood of success in reaching another goal.

Question 112

Implicit Goals

Answer 112

When a goal is repeatedly linked with a situation, the situation itself will automatically activate goal pursuit.

Question 113

What are the problems with implicit goals?

Answer 113

There are problems with the evidence- the goals are not reproducible. It could also be a solution for short-term goals only. It also does address what happens if goal striving takes place in different situations nor self-control or self-regulation. Kind of takes the 'you' out of the equation.

Question 114

Implicit Motives

Answer 114

Enduring, trait-like, nonconscious needs that influence what a person thinks about, feels, and does, and motivates the person toward the pursuit of specific social incentives.

Question 115

Where do implicit motives come from??

Answer 115

They are believed to develop from positive emotions that arise in certain [social] situations during childhood, but that does not mean that they are necessarily stable over time.

Question 116

Need for Achievement

Answer 116

Desire to do well relative to a standard of excellence. - These individuals feel joy when given a difficult challenge that provides immediate feedback about performance. - A lot of people who experience this do have parents that have high standards for them.

Question 117

How do implicit motives work?

Answer 117

They work by directing and guiding us towards certain emotional states.

Question 118

What types of tasks do individuals with a need for achievement prefer?

Answer 118

They prefer moderately difficult tasks over easy or difficult tasks. They don't want easy because then it doesn't give them the feedback that they want, but they also don't want something so difficult that they have no idea where they are at.

Question 119

Need for Affiliation

Answer 119

Has a "light" and "dark" side- need for intimacy and need for approval respectively. - These individuals feel calm in situations that offer comfort and interpersonal security.

Question 120

Need for Intimacy

Answer 120

Growth-oriented need, the "light side"

Question 121

Need for Approval

Answer 121

Deficiency-oriented need, the "dark side". - This need for approval can be activated very quickly and easily. Even for individuals who have developed a good relationship, they are going to be more sensitive to, and more easily triggered.

Question 122

Need for Power

Answer 122

Desire to make the physical and social world conform to one's plan for it. They feel strong, sharp arousal spikes while pursuing positions of status and power. This power could be positively or negatively valenced.

Question 123

What are some social conditions that satisfy the need for power?

Answer 123

Some social conditions include: 1) Consuming alcohol 2) Aggression 3) Having prestigious occupations and possessions.

Question 124

Individual Differences

Answer 124

Enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Personality, but also intelligence, values, beliefs, etc.

Question 125

What is the goal of the individual differences approach?

Answer 125

Goal is to identify individual differences that affect motivated behavior. For example motivational mindsets.

Question 126

How do we typically measure motivational traits? What are the pros and cons of this measure?

Answer 126

We typically use self-report measures. It is much easier to do studies using something like this. However, you have to be very careful with the wording of items that you give to people. Also, keep in mind the potential lack-of-truthfulness that participants may express.

Question 127

What is another way that we could measure motivational traits?

Answer 127

We can measure someone's pattern of activation in their prefrontal cortex. Can tell us whether they are more or less approach or avoidance oriented.

Question 128

Mastery Goal Orientation

Answer 128

High scores on mastery goal orientation represent people who strive to develop their own abilities; they evaluate their progress toward their goals using self-referential standards.

Question 129

Mastery-Approach Orientation

Answer 129

Strive to develop own abilities and learn as much as possible. For example, a goal may be: "I want to learn a lot about what motivates people."

Question 130

Mastery-Avoidance Orientation

Answer 130

Stive to avoid ending up in a situation where they have not learned as much as possible. For example, a goal may be: "I don't wan tot end the semester without knowing what motivates people."

Question 131

Performance Goal Orientation

Answer 131

High scores on performance goal orientation represent people who stive to validate their ability by outperforming others; they evaluate their progress toward their goals using normative standards, meaning they judge their performance based on how other people are doing.

Question 132

Performance Approach Orientation

Answer 132

Strive to outperform their peers. For example, a goal may be: "I want to get the top grade in this class."

Question 133

Performance Avoidance Orientation

Answer 133

Strive to avoid underperforming relative to their peers. For example, a goal may be: "I do not want to be the only student to fail this class."

Question 134

Promotion Focus

Answer 134

High scores on promotion focus represent people whose needs and goals are characterized by growth and advancement and who are sensitive to positive outcomes. These people paly a game of "gain and non-gains;" they respond well to positive feedback.

Question 135

What are the pros and cons have having a promotion focus?

Answer 135

Pros: These individuals tend to be "go-getters," quick at progressing through goals. Cons: They will tend to make a lot of mistakes along the way.

Question 136

Prevention Focus

Answer 136

High scores on prevention focus represent people whose needs and goals are characterized by safety and security and who are sensitive to negative outcomes. These people play a game of "loss" and "non-losses"; they respond well to negative feedback.

Question 137

What are the pros and cons of prevention focus?

Answer 137

Pros: These individuals tend to be "careful analysis" and be vigilant. Cons: They also tend to show a lack of flexibility and risk-taking.

Question 138

What emotional states to individuals with a promotion focus feel in regards to their goals?

Answer 138

If they are seeing sufficient goal progress, they will feel cheerful; if insufficient goal progress, they will feel dejected.

Question 139

What emotional states will individuals with a prevention focus feel in regards to their goals?

Answer 139

If sufficient goal progress, they will feel calm; if insufficient goal progress, they will feel agitated.