Unit 1 Flashcards
(206 cards)
1
Q
psychology
A
involves study of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
2
Q
mind
A
mental activity that results from biochemical processes within brain (includes thoughts, memories, feelings, and perceptual experiences)
3
Q
amiable skepticism
A
remain open to new ideas but is wary of new “scientific findings” when good evidence + sound reasoning doesn’t seem to support it
4
Q
critical thinking
A
using amiable skepticism (evaluating all facts, being skeptical but still open); looking for holes in evidence + using logic/reasoning, consider biases; what are the assumptions, evidence, and conclusion?
5
Q
confirmation bias
A
people are inclined to overweigh evidence that supports their beliefs and tend to downplay evidence that doesn’t match what they believe (ignoring evidence)
6
Q
coincidence, “synchronicity”
A
common reasoning error that 2 events that happen at the same time must somehow be connected
7
Q
hindsight biases
A
once we know outcome, interpret and reinterpret old evidence to make sense of outcome (accepting after the fact explanations), gives false sense of certainty of ability to make predictions about future behaviors
8
Q
heuristics
A
people follow simple rules to make decisions; is valuable because reduces reasonably good decisions without too much effort but can lead to inaccurate judgement (taking mental shortcuts)
9
Q
Dunning Kruger Effect
A
explanation to people being unaware of their own weakenesses is people might lack the ability to evaluate own performance where they have little expertise
10
Q
hypothesis generation
A
taking a moment to consider some possibilities and occurs at the beginning of the scientific process
11
Q
mind body problem
A
are mind + body separate or distinct or is mind simply subjective experience of ongoing brain activity?
12
Q
dualism
A
promoted by Rene Descartes, was idea that mind and body are separate but intertwined; argued body was nothing more than organic machine governed by “reflex”; today psychologists reject it and believe mind and brain do not exist separately
13
Q
nature vs. nurture
A
psychologists recognize nature (innate knowledge) + nurture (“blank state shaped by experience”) dynamically interact in human psychology development
14
Q
culture
A
beliefs, values, rules, norms, customs existing within group of people who share common language or environment
15
Q
stream of consciousness
A
William James noted that mind consists of ever changing, continuous series of thoughts, product of interacting + dynamic stimuli coming from inside of head + outside world
16
Q
functionalism
A
psychologists examine functions served by mind, how mind operates (early approaches from 1880s - 1900s); adaptive purpose of mind, stream of consciousness
17
Q
natural selection
A
some features have evolved through this evolutionary process
18
Q
localization
A
different areas of brain are specialized for different functions
19
Q
human genome
A
basic genetic code, or blueprint, for human body; map for psychologists represent foundational knowledge for studying how specific genes affect thoughts, actions, feelings, and disorders
20
Q
epigenetics
A
study of ways environmental mechanisms can get “under the skin”
21
Q
gut microbiome
A
billions of microorganisms that live in our digestive tract + our mind and behavior
22
Q
gut brain axis
A
reveals composition + diversity of microorganisms can alter, be alerted, by way our bodies respond to stress, mount immune response, and direct attention
23
Q
behaviorism
A
during first half of 1900s, focused on studying observable behavior to exclusion of mental events (wanted to forget role of unconscious),
24
Q
cognitive revolution
A
second half of 1900s, led by George A Miller where with computers, where able to build mathematical models of behavior that capture some of important but invisible facts that underlie; also called cognitive psychology
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big data
uses tools from computer science word, like data mining and machine learning, to identity complex patterns in large data sets
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replicability
results would be same if someone ran study again
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open science movement
where psychologists made research plans and designs more transparent, documenting failed studies, and sharing data among researchers among other steps
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norms
culture instils certain rules which specify how people should behave in different contexts
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biological level of analysis
deals with how physical body contributes to mind and body
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individual level of analyssi
focus on individual differences in personality and in mental processes that affect how people perceive and know the world around them
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social level of analysis
involves how group context affect way in which people interact + influence each other
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biopsychosocial model
biological, individual, and social level of analysis together
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cultural level of analysis
explores how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are similar/different across cultures
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interdisciplinary
psychologists may collaborate w/ other researchers from other scientific fields
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disturbed practice
learning materials in bursts over prolonged time frame, instead of cramming; helps b/ pulling up memory everytime
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elaborative interrogation
thinking why fact is true or why it is true in some cases, helps link existing knowledge in mind to integrate it into your understanding of world
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self explanation
reflecting on your learning process and trying to make sense of new materials in your own terms
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interleaved practice
switching b/w topics during studying instead of completing one topic before moving on to next
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Monsim?
no separation b/w mind and body, Dennett: mind is product of physical matter (brain)
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Structuralism
early approaches (1880s-1900s); break down unconscious into component parts, trained introspection where person looked inward at own mental processes, was highly subjective and unreliable
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Psychodynamic theory
role of unconscious (1900s - 1950s); was pioneered by Freud, believed there were mental processes below level of conscious awareness, made progress but not scientifically rigorous
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Social Psychology
capturing social influences (1950s - present); was after WW2 and wanted to understand human behavior like prejudice, stereotyping, etc
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theory
has to be testable through data + observable; explanation or model of how phenomenon works; should be falsifiable, should be able to test hypothesis that show theory is wrong
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Occam's razor or Law of Parsimony
tend toward simplicity for theory
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hypothesis
prediction based on theory, tested hypothesis should lead to structured empirical data; cannot quantify wish fulfillment like Freud's theory, narrower than theory is based on
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research
tests hypothesis, test yields data that leads to conclusion, careful collection, analysis, and interpretation of data
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empiricism
observing world and measuring aspects of it; involves data collection + analysis + careful planning
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scientific method
what scientists follow systematic procedure
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variable
something in world that can vary + that researcher can manipulate, measure, or both
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operational definition
qualify (define) and quantify (measure) variable so variables can be understood objectively
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Scientific Method Process
pose testable specific research question -> educate yourself on what is already known about theory -> form hypothesis -> design a study -> conduct study -> analyze data -> report resulsts
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peer review
process by which other scientists w/ similar expertise evaluate + critique research reports
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false positive
occurs when hypothesis under investigation is false but study produces seemingly trustworthy results by chance
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questionable research practiecs
unintentionally made studies less likely to replicate (small samples; HARking (after the fact prediciton), P-hacking (running stats tests over until get results want), Underreporting null effects)
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preregistration
researchers lay out their hypothesis, method, analysis plan ahead of time, publish it w/ time stamp; includes power analysis which helps determine if sample size is big enough
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meta analysis
type of study that is analysis of multiple analyses
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descriptive research
involves observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively + systematically (lowest level of casual inference), researcher doesn't interfere; can have observation bias, reactivity if human knows they are being observed
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case study
intensive observation, recording, description of typical person or organization (cannot usually generalize)
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participant observational study
where researcher is involved in situation
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naturalistic observation
where observer is passive, remains separated from situation and makes no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior
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self report method
like surveys or questionnaires can be used to gather data from large number of people in short time (better than average effect where people think they are better than they really area, self report bias; may tell what is socially exceptable)
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correlational studies
examine how variables are naturally related in real world, w/o any attempt by researcher to alter them or conclude that one variable causes other (cannot determine casual relationship: affect of one directly affects other), used when not possible to perform experiment
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correlation coefficient
descriptive statistic b/w -1 and +1 that indicates strength of relationship + direction b/w two variables
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directionality problem
knowing direction of relationship b/w variables (did A lead to B or did B lead to A)
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third variable problem
possible that variable C is responsible for both variable A and B, and is not variable A producing variable B as researchers assume
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experimental
researcher manipulates one variable to measure effect on second variable, highest level of casual inference (confounds can limit inference)
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independent variable
variable that is being manipulated
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dependent variable
variable that is being measured (dependent measure)
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experimental group
group of study participants that receive treatment
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control group
consists of similar participants who experience everything experimental group recieves except treatment
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repeated measures designed
same people receive both treatments
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control
steps taken by researcher to ensure manipulation of IV is only difference b/w experimental and control group
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confound
anything that affects dependent variable and that might unintentionally vary between studies different experimental conditions
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random assignment
assign participants to experimental and control groups, gives each potential participant equal chance of being assigned to any level of independent variable; guards against systematic differences b/w groups
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population
group ultimately want to know about
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sample
subset of population you are using to study
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sampling
process by which you select people from population to be sample
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random sampling
sample should represent population and best method to do this is
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convenience sample
sample consists of people who are conveniently available for study, almost certainly biased
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informed consent
is ongoing process of ensuring that participants understand what they are asked to do and actively agree to do it
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anonymity
researchers don't collect personal, identifiable information in first place from particpants
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experimentation averse
generally think that implementing either A or B, even if both are untested, is more acceptable than randomizing A/B testing to determine which option
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construct validity
extent to which variable measure what they are supposed to measure
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external validity
degree to which findings of study can be generalized to other people, settings, situations
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internal validity
degree to which effects observed in experiment are due to independent variable and all confounds
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descriptive statistic
provide overall summary of studies results; central tendency, variability
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cultural tendency
described typical responds or behavior of group as whole
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variability
how widely dispersed values are from one another and form mean
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inferential statistics
estimate how likely it is that effects are due to chance as opposed to reflecting true differences in population, generalizing from sample
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statistical significance
a measure of the probability of the null hypothesis being true compared to the acceptable level of uncertainty regarding the true answer; less than 5% probability of occurring due to chance
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probabilistic
conclusions are not black and white but a current shades of gray
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Bayesian statistics
formula that enables researchers to know how much set of data should change their beleifs about whether hypothesis is true
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casual inference
ability to give insight into cause and effect
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Hawthorne effect
reactivity, people respond to being observed, know that observe may change their behavior
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response performance
perceptual or cognitive processing of stimuli, time consuming and hard to do in real world
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selection bias
think getting random sample but isn't sample
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forebrain
wrinkly part; brain starts when go back of head called hindbrain and midbrain which are brain stem and cerebellum
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subcortical structures
include thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system and basal ganglia
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cerebral cortex
has 4 lobes that have multiple functions, division b/w lobes + functions associated w/ it; folded up 2D sheet, has 2 hemispheres that have contralateral organization so right brain controls left side and sees left side of vision
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Hindbrain
made up of pons, cerebellum, medulla oblongata
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brainstem
controls basic survival functions; takes care/adjusts heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure; if damaged, can be highly fatal
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pons
NEED DEFINITION; injury to this can cause locked in syndrome where patient loose ability to control muscle voluntarily, can happen from brain clot
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cerebellum
located behind the brainstem, it has to do with motor coordination, balance, motor memory, and motor learning; may contribute to executive function
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Hypothalamus
plays role in motivation and regulation; senses temperature, food, and sex; each different cells in area; coordinates with endocrine system to coordinate with hormone responses; damage to area causes hypoplasia where don't ever feel satisfied and keep eating (is subcortical structure)
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Thalamus
central role as relay station for sensory and motor info except sense of smell; also involved in regulation of conscious and sleep, level of alertness (is subcortical structure)
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hippocampus
there is left and right; long term memory formation and spatial navigation; has to do with taxi drivers in London (part of limbic system); formation of new memories
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amygdala
plays role in emotional learning and in fear conditioning; process where stimulus leads to outcome (part of limbic system); facial expressions and function of memory during times of emotional arousal
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basal ganglia
motor control and reward/motivation; organizes motor response to gain rewards; damage to this can cause Parkinson's disease (where have difficultly moving + initiating movements) and Huntington's where cause nerves in brain to breakdown (is inheritable)
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corpus callosum
bridge b/w 2 hemispheres, most of left and right brain are in total agreement and are communicating; in "split brain patients" who have epilepsy, cut corpus callosum so that there is no inter hemispheric talk and are usually normal after that
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hemispheric spatilization
left hemisphere is language production and right hemisphere is spatial
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split brain patients (two different cues)
will say ring but left hand will pick up the item that they see on the right side; left hemisphere will come up with explanation as to why did thing, left hemisphere as "interpreter"
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frontal lobe
decision making, motor control and motor planning; sends signals to cerebellum
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parietal lobe
attention and touch; everything is flipped where left receives touch info from right side of the body and visa versa
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temporal lobe
hearing, high level of vision as located next to ears
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Occipital lobe
first stage of vision, in back of head
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way brain is organized
distributed: entire brain contributes equal to function (did lesion tests on animals, no differential effects of memory or cognition)
localized: believed now, certain areas specialized for specific brain functions
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phrenology
more function of brain would have more voume, related to mental faculties to skull shape; had to do with Franza Joseph Gall
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Broca's area; Paul Broca and "tan"
Monsieur Leborgne, only word could say was tan and had difficulty producing language but had intact comprehension; found hole in Broca's area; left frontal region that is important for language production
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Phineas Gage Case
survived tampering iron that blew through skull; found that linked prefrontal and frontal lobe many affected; showed profound changes to personality, went from being temperate, frugal person to impulsive
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Wilder Penfield
in 1950s and 1960s, Wilder Penfield would use mapping function in awake patients, would stimulate particular regions of brain
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Orderly sensory map
adjacent cortical points map adjacent points in sensory place; same with sensory with retinotopic mapping and sensory with somatotopic mapping
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cortical maginification
more cortex devoted to some regions of stimulus space, central fixation processed by 50% of visual cortex; don't represent all equally in brain, some parts of body are overrepresented like lips and hands
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cortical plasticity
cortical organization changes based on experience; can happen when someone looses and arm with phantom limb syndrome where region that used to respond to hand, no longer receives input and gets taken over by adjacent parts
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prefrontal cortex
used for rational activity, sense of self + empathize, occupies 30% of brain
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classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
neutral stimulus elicits response b/ it has become associated w/ stimulus that already produces that response
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unconditioned response (UR)
response is unconditioned, is automatic behavior like reflex; unlearned reaction
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unconditioned stimulus (US)
without any training US leads to UR; unlearned stimulus that elicits reaction without learning
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conditioned stimulus (CS)
stimulus that elicits a learned reaction; before conditioning is neutral stimulus but because CS after conditioning trials
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conditioned response (CR)
response that has been learned
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Timing to CS
research shows that strongest conditioning occurs when there is brief delay b/w onset of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus
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acquisition
formation of association b/w conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
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extincition
because of new learning, animal's CR will gradually disappear; CR is extinguished when CS no longer predicts unconditioned stimulus
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spontaneous recovery
extinguished CS again produces CR, recovery is temporary and will fade unless CS is again paired with CR
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Rescorla-Wagner model
animals learn to expect that some predictors (potential CSs) are better than others; for learning CS should come before US to set expectation of; learning when events violate expectations
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positive prediction error
after stimulus appears, something surprising happens, either presence of unexpected event or stronger version of expected stimulus than expected
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negative prediction eror
if expected event doesn't happen, absence leads to this which weakens CS - US association
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stimulus generalization
occurs when stimuli is similar but not identical to CS produce CR; generalization is adaptive
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stimulus discrimination
occurs when animal learns to differentiate b/w two similar stimuli if one is consistently associated with US and other is not
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second order conditioning
CRs can be learned w/o learned ever association CS with original US; where CS becomes associated with other CS that already associated with US; "predictor of predictor is a predictor"
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equipotential
object could be converted to CS when associated with US or any behavior can be learned as long as its reinforced
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conditioned taste aversion
demonstrates when whether or not food caused illness, most people respond to sequence of events; especially likely if food was not part of normal diet and can happen for one time occurrence; difficult for most animals with light or sound; can be adaptive response to avoid poisonous foods
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biological preparedness
animals are genetically programmed to fear specific items
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Dopamine
important for rewarding US in classical conditioning or rewarding reinforce is operant conditioning; want is desire or craving user has to consume substance while liking is subjective sense of pleasure user receives; dopamine more has to do with wanting aspect of reward
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Dopamine course of conditioning
as animals learn certain cues signal rewards, cues themselves produce dopamine activity; Reward Prediction Error: neurons fire + dopamine making prediction that reward is coming, not when actual reward is given
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phobia
acquired fear that is out of proportion to real threat of object/situation; develop t/ generalization of fear experience; John B. Watson showed classical conditioning role in fear with infant experiment
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fear conditioning
animals can be classically conditioned to fear neutral objects
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neutral stimulus
association with US over repeated trials, doesn't produce any behavioral response by itself
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exposure therapies
can help with fear/phobias, learned associations can be unlearned
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Tolerance
conditioned response to drug paraphernalia, environment; can have higher tolerance in some places than other where used to taking it
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law of effect
behavior that leads to satisfying outcome is more likely to be repeated in the future
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Skinner box
operant chamber made by BF Skinner who studied observable effects on environment, was experimental control of behavioral outcomes
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reinforcement
increases likelihood that particular response will be repeated; reinforcing stimulus or event, immediate consequences strengthenes behavior; can reifnroce by adding something nice or taking away something unpleasant
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primary reinforcement
directly tied to biological needs
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secondary reinforcement
learned association w/ primary reinforcer via classical conditioning
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shaping
successive approximations of desired behaviors, repeated reinforcement of behavior similar to desired beahvior
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Positive Reinforcement
adding pleasant stimulus or event (stars)
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Negative Reinforcement
removing unpleasant stimulus or event (seat buckle beep)
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punishment
decreases likelihood that response will be repeated, outcome weakens behavior
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punisher
stimulus/event that follows behavior that discourages response to occur; primary: pain, hunger, etc; secondary: disappointment
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positive punishment
administer adverse stimulus; behavior is followed by presentation of adverse stimulus and is weakened
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negative punishment
remove pleasant stimulus, behavior is followed by removal of pleasant stimulus and is weakened (like suspended license of bad driving)
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temporal discounting
when value of reward diminishes over time, plays important role in achieving long term goal, thought underlie wide range of poor decisions humans make; "myopic behavior" is only thinking short term and discounting long term consequences
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modeling
imitation of observed behavior; effective only if observer is physically capable of imitating behavior
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vicarious learning
people learn about action's consequences by watching others being rewarded or punished for performance action (Bobo dolls experiment); don't need to be punished themselves to know consequences, can see what happens to other people
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fixed interval schedule (FI)
occurs when reinforcement is provided after certain amount of time has passed (paycheck every 2 weeks)
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variable interval schedule (VI)
occurs when reinforcement is provided after passage of time but time isn't regular (not very common, like drug testing at Olympics)
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fixed ratio schedule (FR)
occurs when reinforcement is provided after certain number of responses has been made (factory workers paid by number of products made)
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variable ratio schedule (VR)
occurs when reinforcmenet is provided after unpredictable number of responses, is most effective as know going to get reward but don't know when payoff is going to happe
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motivation
anything that energizes, directs, or sustains behavior; Maslow's hierarchy of needs is more of conceptual theory
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drive
psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy need; particular drive encourages behaviors that will satisfy particular needs
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Yerkes-Dodson law
psychological principle that dictates performance on challenging tasks increases with arousal only up too moderate point
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incentives
external objects/goals rather than internal drives that motivate behavior
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extrinsic motivation
directed toward external goal, typically reward like paycheck; more related to quantity of work
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intrinsic motivation
value of pleasure associated w/ activity, rather than external goal; activities that are for no purpose other than enjoyment; more related to quality of work
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self efficacy
expectation that efforts will lead to your success, expectation helps mobilize your energy
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self regulation
process by which people guide their behavior to attain personal goals, postponing immediate gratification in pursuit of long term goals
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hot cognitions into cold congitions
mentally transforming desired object into something undesired; hot is focused on reward while cold is focused on conceptual
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central nervous system (CNS)
consists of brain and spinal cord; CNS organizes info received from PNS and directs PNS to perform specific behaviors
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
consists of all other nerve cells in body; PNS sends variety of info to CNS
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neuron
basic unit of nervous system, which receive, integrate, transmit info; make up neuron networks that communicate selectively; communication t/ chemical signals of reception -> integration -> transmission
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dendrites
short, branchlike appendages that detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons
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cell body
where info received via dendrites is collected/integrated
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axon
long, narrow outgrowth where electrical impulses are transmitted along; end of knoblike structure called terminal buttons
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synapse
site where chemical connection b/w neurons occurs; since neurons don't touch, send signals through this tiny gap b/w terminal buttons of sending neuron and dendrites of receiving neuron
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ion channels
specialized pores allow ions to pass in/out of cell where neuron transmits signal down axos; regulates concentration of electrically charged molecules that are basis of neuron's electrical activity
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action potential (neural firing)
electrical signal that passes along, causes terminal button to release chemicals that transmit signals to other neuron
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resting membrane potential
neuron is resting, electrical charge inside of neuron is slightly more negative than electrical charge outside
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sodium potassium pump
increases potassium and decreases sodium inside neuron, helping maintain resting membrane potential
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excitatory signals
depolarize cell membrane and increase likelihood that neuron will fire (decreasing negative charge inside cell)
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inhibitory signals
hyperpolarize cell membrane and decrease likelihood that neuron will fire (increasing negative charge inside cell)
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relative refractory period
when memory potential slightly more negative than resting potential, where requires even more excitatory input to trigger another action potential
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all or none principle
neurons fires with same potency every time, depends how often neuron is fired; stronger stimulation, more frequently action potentials are generated
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myelin sheath
insulates axon and b/ of insulation, actional potential doesn't have to go entire length of axon
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nodes of ranvier
small gaps of expose axon, b/w myelin sheath
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neurotransmitter
chemicals that are made in accent or cell body and stored in vesicles
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presynaptic neuron
neuron that sends the signal
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postsynaptic neuron
neuron that receives signal
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receptors
specialized protein molecules located on postsynaptic membrane that specifically respond to chemical structure of neurotransmitters available in synapsis; only be influenced by one type of neurotransmitter
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reuptake
occurs when neurotransmitter is taken back into presynaptic terminal buttons
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enzyme deactivation
when enzyme destroys neurotransmitter and synapse
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auto reception
when neurotransmitters bind with receptors on presynaptic neuron
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antagonist
inhibit action of neurotransmitters; introduce substance that reduces amount of neurotransmitters made and released into synapsis, introduces substance that breaks down neurotransmitters or blocks postsynaptic receptors
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agonists
enhance actions of neurotransmitters; introduce substance that helps increase amount of neurotransmitters made + released, blocked receptor on presynaptic cell that triggers reuptake, mimicking action of neurotransmitters on postsynaptic cell
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Common Neurotransmitters
- glumate: major excitatory neurotransmitter
- GABA (y-aminobutyric acid): chief inhibitory transmitter
- acetylcholine: found in brain, neuromuscular junction
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Excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)
on dendrite of post synaptic neuron
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inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP)
K+ go out of cell through their ion channel
