Unit 1 Biology and behavior Flashcards
understand the history of neuropsychology, the organization of the nervous system, the organization of the brain, the parts of the forebrain, hindbrain, and midbrain, the influences of teh brain on behavior, and childhood development. (110 cards)
1
Q
What is Neuropsychology?
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Neuropsychology is the study of the connection between the nervous system and behavior. It most often focuses on the functions of various brain regions.
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Franz Gall (1758-1828)
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He created phrenology, the idea that if a trait was well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for the trait would be larger than other parts of the brain.
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Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)
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Used extirpation and ablation (or surgically removing a particular part) of the brain in order to observe the behavioral consequences.
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William James (1842-1910)
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Created the foundations of functionalism, the study of mental processes in how they help an individual adapt to their environment
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John Dewey (1859-1952)
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Believed that psychology should focus on the study of an individual as a whole as they function to adapt to their environment.
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Paul Broca (1824-1880)
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Demonstrated that certain functional impairments could be traced back to lesions in specific areas of the brain. The Broca’s area and Broca’s aphasia are attributed to him.
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Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
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He was the first person to measure the speed of a nerve impulse and measure the body’s reaction times.
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Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952)
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First to infer the existence of synapses, however he thought that synaptic transmission happened through electric impulses instead of chemical impulses.
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Sensory neurons
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Also known as the afferent neurons, they ascend the spinal cord and transmit the sensory info from the receptors to the brain.
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Motor neurons
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AKA efferent neurons, they exit the brain through the spinal cord, and transmit motor info to the muscles and glands.
11
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Interneurons
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The most numerous type of neurons. They are found between the sensory and motor neurons, and are linked to reflexive behaviors.
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Reflex Arcs
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neural circuits which are controlled by interneurons which allow quick reflexive actions to occur without the message having to be sent back and forth through the spinal cord.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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Is made up of the tissues and fibers outside of the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of 31 spinal nerves and 12 cranial nerves. It houses the somatic and autonomic responses.
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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composed of the brain and spinal cord
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Somatic nervous system
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consists of both sensory and motor neurons that are distributed through the skin, joints, and muscles.
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Autonomic system
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generally regulates the heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions that are automatic and independent of the conscious body. It can be further broken into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
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Parasympathetic system
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The main role of this system is to conserve energy and is usually linked with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. A way to remember this is to use rest and digest.
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Sympathetic system
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this system is activated by stress, and it increases heart rate, redistributes blood to the muscles of locomotion, relaxes the bronchi, dilates the eyes, and releases epinephrine. A way to remember these actions is by remembering they are linked to fight or flight.
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Q
The meninges
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A 3 layered sheath of connective tissue that protects the brain. It is divided into the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. Its main role is to resorb cerebrospinal fluid.
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Dura mater
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outermost layer of meninges that is connected directly to the skull.
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Arachnoid mater
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weblike and fibrous layer of connective tissue in between the dura and pia mater’s.
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Pia mater
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the last layer of the meninges which is connected directly to the brain.
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Cerebrospinal fluid
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A fluid created by the specialized cells that line the ventricles which nourishes the brain.
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Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
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Houses the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation, and the pons. Controls balance, motor function, coordination, breathing, digestion , and general arousal process. Is the most primitive part of the brain evolutionarily. During embryonic development, it divides to form the metencephalon which becomes the pons and cerebellum; and the myencephalon which becomes the medulla oblongata.
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Cerebellum
Is a part of the hindbrain responsible for refined motor movements. Alcohol can impair the function of the cerebellum which is what causes speech and balance issues when drunk.
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Medulla Oblongata
Part of the hindbrain which is responsible for the heart and vital reflexes.
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Reticular formation
Part of the hindbrain which is responsible for arousal and alertness.
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Pons
Last part of the hindbrain, it is responsible for communication within the brain, and functions like breathing.
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Midbrain (mesencephalon)
receives the sensory and motor information from the rest of the body. It is associated with the involuntary reflex responses triggered by auditory and visual stimuli. It houses the colliculi.
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Superior Colliculus
receives visual stimuli/sensory input and can trigger a reflex to it such as being spooked by a snake or unknown object.
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Inferior colliculus
receives auditory stimuli/sensory input and can trigger a reflex to it such as jumping at loud noises.
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Forebrain (prosencephalon)
Is associated with the complex, perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes. During prenatal development, it is divided into the telencephalon which forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system; and the diencephalon which forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland.
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Thalamus
A part of the forebrain and a relay station for sensory information, a sort of sensory way station for the brain.
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Hypothalamus
A part of the forebrain with feeding, fighting, flighting, and sexual functioning abilities. It is further divided into the lateral, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus.
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Lateral hypothalamus
part of the hypothalamus which triggers eating and drinking in the brain, when it is removed, one lacks hunger and thirst and refuses to eat or drink.
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Ventromedial hypothalamus
Satiety center of hypothalamus, it provides us with the signal to stop eating so that we do not overeat. When it is destroyed, one is very much hungry.
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Anterior hypothalamus
Last part of the hypothalamus, controls the sexual behavior and regulates sleep and body temperature.
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Posterior pituitary
A part of the forebrain which is comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus, and is the site of release for hormones like antidiuretic hormone (ADH, Vasopresin), and oxytocin.
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Pineal Gland
Another part of the diencephalon, it secretes the hormone melatonin which regulates circadian rhythms and works by receiving signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight.
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Basal Ganglia
In charge of coordinating muscle movements as it receives info from the cortex and relays this info to the brain and spinal cord via the extrapyramidal system. Is thought to play a role in OCD and schizophrenia.
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Extrapyramidal system
gathers info about the body position and carries this info to the CNS, but does not function directly through motor neurons.
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Parkinson's Disease
One of the chronic illnesses which is associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia, which creates uncontrolled resting tremors and jerky movements.
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Limbic System
In charge of emotion and memory in the forebrain, and houses the septal nuclei, Amygdala, Hippocampus, and the anterior cingulate cortex
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Septal nuclei
Contains one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain, there is an association between this and addictive behaviors.
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Amygdala
Plays an important role is defensive and aggressive behaviors like fear and rage. Lesions to the amygdala can result in docility and hypersexual states.
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Hippocampus
Plays a vital role in learning and memory processes. It specifically helps to consolidate info to form long term memories, and can redistribute remote hormones to the cerebral cortex.
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Anterior cingulate cortex
Due to the connection with the frontal and parietal lobes, it functions in the higher order cognitive processes, including the regulation of impulse and decision making. It also plays a role in emotion and motivation.
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Cerebral cortex
This is sometimes called the neocortex and has numerous bumps and folds called guri and sulci. It is divided into 2 halves called hemispheres, and further into the 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal)
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Frontal Lobe
This lobe is comprised of 2 main regions, the prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex and is in charge of executive and motor functions. It also features the Broca's area.
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Prefrontal cortex
the aprt of the frontal lobe that manages executive function by supervising and directing operations of other brain regions, it communicates with the reticular formation in order to regulate attention and alertness. In memory its role is to remind individuals that they have something to remember which is a good example of an association area.
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Association areas
An area of the brain that integrates input from from the diverse regions of the brain. Examples can include solving a puzzle, planning ahead, or reaching a difficult decision.
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Projection areas
an area that performs a more rudimentary perceptual or motor task. An example could be the primary cortex located on the precentral gyrus just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes.
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Primary motor cortex
Its function is to initiate the voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord to the muscles.
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Broca's area
An area vital to speech production, it is usually only found in one hemisphere of the brain, the dominant one, which is usually the left. It's dysfunction can be seen in patients exhibiting Broca's aphasia.
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Parietal Lobe
It is the region that deals with touch, temperature, pressure, and pain. The central region of the parietal lobe is associated with spatial processing and manipulation, which makes it possible for one to orient themselves and other objects in 3 dimensional space.
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Somatosensory cortex
Located on the postcentral gyrus just behind the central sulcus and is involved in the somatosensory information processing. It is the destination for all of the incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
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Occipital Lobe
Located at the very back of the brain, it contains the visual cortex, and is one of the best understood brain regions due to the numerous studies done on visual processing.
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Temporal lobe
It functions in memory processing, emotion, and language. The hippocampus is located deep within this lobe, and it also contains the auditory cortex and Wernicke's area.
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Auditory cortex
This is the primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, and other sound info.
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Wernicke's area
This is the area associated with language repetition, and comprehension.
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Contralaterally
This is when one hemisphere of the other, controls the other side of the body. For example motor neurons on the left hemisphere of the brain, activating the right side of the body.
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Ipsilaterally
This is when the hemisphere of the brain controls the same side of the body. An example of this is when you hear things.
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Dominant hemisphere
Is mainly analytical in function, which makes it well suited for managing details, the Broca's area and Wernicke's area are usually found in the dominant hemisphere of the brain. Some of its functions include visually processing letters and words; processing speech, reading, writing, and arithmetic; and complex voluntary movements.
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Nondominant hemisphere
Is responsible for understanding the emotional tone of spoken language among other things. it helps recognize faces; allows us to recognize music; and allows us to understand geometry and have a sense of direction.
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Neurotransmitters
These are chemicals that are used by neurons to send signals to other neurons.
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Agonist
Any drug that mimics the functions of a neurotransmitter.
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Antagonist
Any drug that inhibits a neurotransmitter.
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Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter used by the efferent limb of the somatic response and the parasympathetic nervous system. It can act as an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter in muscle cells depending on the type of receptor that is found on the cell. Within the CNS, it largely functions as an excitatory neurotransmitter.
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Catecholamines
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine are the neurotransmitters known as catecholamines. They are also referred to as monoamines or biogenic amines.
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Epinephrine and norepinephrine
also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline, help control the alertness and wakefulness of an individual, and are the primary neurotransmitters of the sympathetic nervous system. While norepinephrine more commonly acts at the local level, epinephrine is more often secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone. Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with depression, while high levels are associated with anxiety and mania.
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Dopamine
Plays an important role in movement and posture, a high concentration is usually fond in the basal ganglia. Imbalances in transmissions have been linked to schizophrenia. Parkinson's on the other hand is linked with a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia.
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Serotonin
Generally thought to play a role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming. An oversupply is thought to cause manic stress, while an undersupply can cause depression. This is similar to theories surrounding the amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain.
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Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
A common theory that schizophrenia could be caused by too much dopamine or an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain.
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GABA
gamma-aminobyturic acid produces an inhibitory response in postsynaptic potentials, and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity. It exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.
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Glycine
Is one of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids, but it is also an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, which works by increasing chloride influx in the neuron which hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane.
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Glutamate
Is another proteinogenic amino acid, and acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Its aim is to excite the brain.
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Peptide neurotransmitters
The synaptic actions of these neuromodulators or neuropeptides, is more complicated than that of regular neurotransmitters within a postsynaptic cell. Thus, they are relatively slow, and longer lasting on the postsynaptic cell compared to the effects of the neurotransmitters.
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Endorphins
These and their relatives the enkephalins, are the most important peptides to know in the brain. They have actions similar to those of painkillers such as morphines and other opioids.
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Pituitary Gland
The master gland, and is divided into 2 parts, the anterior and the posterior.
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Anterior pituitary
releases the hormones that regulate the activities of the endocrine glands, but is controlled by the hypothalamus.
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Adrenal glands
They are located on top of the kidneys and are separated into the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex.
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Adrenal Medulla
Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system.
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adrenal cortex
Releases corticosteroids such as cortisol, and contributes to sexual functioning by producing testosterone and estrogen.
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Gonads
The sex glands of the body such as the testes and the ovaries. The release of hormones such as testosterone and estrogen in them increase libido and sexual function.
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Innate behavior
Behaviors that are genetically programmed as a result of evolution and that are seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience.
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learned behavior
Behaviors that are not based on heredity but instead are based on experience and environment.
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adaptive value
The extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits the species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, leading to adaptation through natural selection.
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Nature
The influence of inherited traits on behaviors. Related to the innate behaviors.
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Nurture
Refers to the influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior. Related to learned behaviors.
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Family studies
These rely on the fact that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than those who are unrelated.
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Twin studies
Compare the concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, and are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics.
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Adoption studies
Helps us understand the environmental and genetic influences on behavior through a comparison of similarities between biological relatives and the child, and adoptive relatives and the child.
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Neurulation
At 3-4 weeks gestational age, the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by 2 neural folds. Cells at the leading edge of the fold are called the neural crest, and will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues, including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, and calcitonin producing cells of the thyroid. The remainder of the furrow closes to form the neural tube, which will ultimately form the CNS. It has an alar plate which differentiates into sensory neurons, and a basal plate, which differentiates into motor neurons.
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Primitive reflexes
reflexes that disappear with age. There are a number of examples of these.
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Rooting reflex
a primitive reflex where there is an automatic turning of the head in the direction in which a stimulus touches the cheek.
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Moro reflex
the reflex of infants reacting to abrupt movements of their heads by stretching out their arms, then slowly retracting them, followed by crying.
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Babinski reflex
The reflex that occurs when the sole of the foot is stimulated and the toes spread apart automatically.
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grasping reflex
the reflex that occurs when infants close their fingers around an object that is placed in their hand.
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gross motor skills
This type of motor skill incorporates movements from large muscle groups in the body, and whole body motion such as standing, walking, sitting, and crawling.
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fine motor skills
Motor skills that involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movements like tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving.
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stranger anxiety
A fear and apprehension of unfamiliar figures which develops at around 7 months.
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separation anxiety
A fear of being separated from the parental figure which develops around 1 year.
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parallel play
The ability for children to play alongside each other without influencing each other behavior, this usually develops around 2 years.
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developmental milestones
The age at which certain skills are developed by an individual. There's a rough estimate which could be plus or minus 2 months. Anything longer than that could mean an individual has a behavioral or learning disability.
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Cortical maps
A map of the electric stimulation in different areas of the brain triggered by different activities. This is usually collected by neurosurgeons through the use of electrode.
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Anesthesia & Brain
There are no pain receptors in the brain, only local anesthesia can be used when operating on the brain.
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EEG
An electroencephalogram, shows the electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons through the use of external electrodes.
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rCBF
A regional cerebral blood flow test, detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain.
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PET
Positrons emissions tomography, uses radioactive sugar which is injected and absorbed by the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue can be imaged.
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Other mapping methods
Other mapping techniques include MRI's, CT's, and fMRI scans.
