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Higher Human Biology All (Most) Units 2019 > Unit 1 Flashcards Cells > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards Cells

1
Q

What is differentiation?

A

When unspecialised cells become specialised

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2
Q

What is a somatic cell?

A

Body cells that divide by mitosis

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3
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Unspecialised somatic cells that can divide to make copies of themselves and/or differentiate into specialised cells

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4
Q

How does a stem cell differentiate into one type of cell rather than another?

A

When certain genes are switched on and expressed

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5
Q

Name the three components of a nucleotide of DNA.

A
  1. Deoxyribose sugar
  2. Phosphate
  3. Base
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6
Q

Name the four bases in DNA

A
  1. Adenine
  2. Thymine
  3. Cytosine
  4. Guanine
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7
Q

State the base pairing rule

A

A – T

C – G

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8
Q

What types of bond hold the two DNA strands together?

A

Hydrogen

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9
Q

Which part of the DNA strand is the 3’ end?

A

Deoxyribose Sugar

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10
Q

What is meant by the term anti–parallel in DNA?

A

The two sugar–phosphate backbones run in opposite directions

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11
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Tightly coiled DNA packaged with proteins

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12
Q

Describe the stages involved in DNA replication

A
  1. DNA is unwound and unzipped
  2. Primer attaches to the exposed bases
  3. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides
  4. Nucleotides added at the 3’ end
  5. One strand copied continuously, the other in fragments
  6. Ligase enzyme joins the fragments together”
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13
Q

State three differences between DNA and RNA

A
  1. DNA has deoxyribose sugar, RNA has ribose sugar
  2. DNA is double stranded,
    RNA is single stranded
  3. DNA has thymine,
    RNA has uracil
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14
Q

Name the four main body tissues

A
  1. Epithelial
  2. Connective
  3. Muscle
  4. Nervous
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15
Q

What makes up a ribosome?

A
  1. rRNA

2. Protein

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16
Q

Describe the stages of transcription

A
  1. RNA polymerase unwinds and unzips DNA
  2. RNA nucleotides bind to complementary bases on DNA
  3. A–U, C–G
  4. RNA polymerase joins RNA nucleotides together
  5. Introns removed
  6. Exons joined together by splicing
  7. Primary transcript formed
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17
Q

Describe the stages of translation

A
  1. mRNA attaches to ribosome
  2. mRNA contains codons (3 bases)
  3. tRNA attaches to a specific amino acid
  4. tRNA contains an anti–codon
  5. Anti–codon binds to codon
  6. Peptide bond forms between amino acids
  7. Start codon begins protein, stop codon ends it
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18
Q

What is a multipotent stem cell?

A

A cell that can differentiate into any cell type within that tissue (eg tissue stem cells)

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19
Q

What is a pluripotent stem cell?

A

A cell that can differentiate into any cell type (eg embryonic stem cells)

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20
Q

What is a germline cell?

A

A cell that gives rise to sperm and egg

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21
Q

What two types of cell division do germ line cells carry out?

A
  1. Mitosis

2. Meiosis

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22
Q

Name two therapeutic uses of stem cells

A
  1. Corneal transplants

2. Skin grafts

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23
Q

Why are stem cells used as model cells?

A
  1. To test drugs on

2. To investigate how diseases develop

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24
Q

What is a tumour?

A

A mass of abnormal cells

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25
If cancer cells fail to attach to each other, they can spread through the body to form...
Secondary tumours
26
Anticodon
Three bases on tRNA
27
Codon
Three bases on mRNA (code for a specific amino acid)
28
Ribosome
Site of protein synthesis
29
Amino acid
Building block of a protein
30
Polypeptide
A protein, made up of a long sequence of amino acids
31
Primary transcript
mRNA containing both introns and exons
32
Give two examples of post–translational modification
1. Cutting or combining of polypeptide chains | 2. Adding phosphate or carbohydrate groups to the protein
33
State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids
34
What is a substitution mutation?
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another
35
What is an insertion mutation?
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence
36
What is a deletion mutation?
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence
37
What is missense?
Replacing one amino acid codon with another
38
What is a nonsense mutation?
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon
39
What is a splice site mutation?
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing
40
What is a frame shift mutation?
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase
41
What is a deletion chromosome mutation?
Loss of a segment of a chromosome
42
What is a duplication chromosome mutation?
Repeat of a segment of a chromosome
43
What is a translocation chromosome mutation?
The rearrangement of chromosomal material between two or more chromosomes
44
What are bioinformatics?
The use of computer technology to identify DNA sequences
45
What are systematics used for?
Comparing the human genome with genomes of other species
46
Describe the process of PCR
1. DNA heated (to separate strands) 2. DNA cooled (to allow primers to bind) 3. DNA heated (to optimise DNA polymerase which replicates the DNA)
47
What is a DNA probe?
Short, single strands of DNA that detect the presence of specific DNA sequences
48
What is a catabolic pathway?
A pathway that involves the breakdown of molecules and releases energy
49
What is an Anabolic pathway?
A pathway that is biosynthetic (making bigger molecules) and requires energy
50
Describe induced fit
When a substrate approaches the enzyme, it causes a change in the shape of the active site that allows the substrate to bind
51
Describe activation energy
The energy required for an enzyme–catalysed reaction to occur
52
Describe a competitive inhibitor
Binds to the active site, blocking the substrate from binding early in the pathway
53
Describe a non–competitive inhibitor
Bonds away from the active site but causes a permanent change in the shape of the active site
54
What is feedback inhibition?
End product binds to and inhibits an enzyme that catalysed a reaction
55
State two functions of ATP
1. Providing energy | 2. Phosphorylation of molecules
56
What is the end product of glycolysis?
Pyruvate
57
Name the three stages of aerobic respiration
1. Glycolysis 2. Citric acid cycle 3. Electron transport chain
58
What happens in the energy investment stage of glycolysis?
ATP is used up
59
What happens in the energy pay–off stage of glycolysis?
ATP is produced
60
Name an enzyme in glycolysis that produces an intermediate substance in an irreversible step
Phosphofructokinase
61
How is acetyl co–enzyme A produced?
Pyruvate >> acetyl | Acetyl + co–enzyme A >> acetyl co–enzyme A
62
How is citric acid produced?
oxaloacetate + acetyl co–enzyme A >> citric acid
63
Describe what happens during the citric acid cycle
1. Citric acid is produced 2. ATP is produced 3. Carbon dioxide is released 4. NADH/FADH is produced 5. Oxaloacetate is regenerated
64
Name the enzyme that removes hydrogen ions and electrons from molecules
Dehydrogenase
65
Name the two co–enzymes that pick up hydrogen ions and electrons
1. NADH | 2. FADH2
66
How is ATP made in the electron transport chain?
1. High energy electrons are used to pump hydrogen ions across a membrane. 2. The hydrogen ions flow back through the membrane using the protein ATP synthase. 3. TP is synthesised.
67
What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?
Oxygen
68
Name respiratory substrates
1. Glucose 2. Starch 3. Glycogen 4. Fat 5. Protein
69
What is meant by 'conservation of resources'?
ATP is only made when needed
70
What is the function of creatine phosphate?
It breaks down to release creatine and phosphate that is used to convert ADP to ATP
71
Describe what happens in anaerobic respiration.
1. Hydrogen from NADH is added to pyruvate to become lactic acid 2. This regenerates NAD which is needed for ATP production
72
Which type of muscle fibre has lots of mitochondria?
Slow twitch
73
Which type of muscle fibre does not have a good blood supply?
Fast twitch
74
What type of events are fast twitch muscle fibres best for?
Bursts of activity (eg sprinting, weight lifting)

Higher Human Biology All (Most) Units 2019 (4 decks)

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